English Express

Admission Going On (Class XI, 2018)

Linkers

On this page
Grammatical form
Reasons and results
Contrast
Comparing
Adding points
One sentence or two?
Linking with prepositions
Other ways of linking and other relationships


Grammatical form

clause + conjunction + clause
conjunction + clause + clause
preposition + noun (phrase) + clause
sentence + adverbial + sentence

It was raining so I stayed at home.
Although it was raining, I went for a walk.
Despite the rain, I went for a walk.
It was a cold winter afternoon and the sky threatened rain. Nevertheless, we decided to go for a walk.


Reasons and results

Linkers are words or phrases that we use to link (i.e. connect or join) ideas.

It was raining. I stayed at home.

In this example, we can see that the first idea, 'It was raining.' is the reason for the second idea, 'I stayed at home.' Or, 'I stayed at home' is a result of 'It was raining.' We can use linkers such as so or therefore to make the relationship between the two ideas clear.

It was raining so I stayed at home.
It was raining. Therefore, I stayed at home.

We could also change the order and put the result before the reason and use a linker such as because.

I stayed at home because it was raining.

The linkers so, because and therefore show a relationship of reason and result, orcause and effect.

Contrast

Let’s look at another example:

It was raining. I went for a walk.

This time there is a different relationship between the two ideas. People don't usually go for a walk if it is raining. The second idea doesn't normally follow from the first one. It is unexpected. This relationship, where the ideas are different or opposing, is called contrast.

We can use linkers such as but, although and however to show contrast and make the relationship between the ideas clear.

It was raining but I went for a walk.
Although it was raining, I went for a walk.
It was raining. However, I went for a walk.

Comparing

Sometimes we want to compare two things that are different:

I always go to bed early.
My sister goes to bed very late.

This is also a kind of contrast and we can make the relationship clear using linkers such as while, whereas, but, however or on the other hand.

I always go to bed early, whereas my sister goes to bed very late.
I always go to bed early. My sister, on the other hand, goes to bed very late.

Adding points

One other common relationship between ideas is addition, when we want to add ideas. These can be very simple:

I like seafood.
I like spicy food.

We could add these ideas with linkers such as and, also and too:

I like seafood and spicy food.
I like seafood. I also like spicy food.
I like seafood. I like spicy food too.

In written English, we sometimes want to add ideas such as points in an argument. This is common when writing essays and reports:

The cost of relocation would be very high.
There are no suitable premises currently available.
A move would be unpopular with staff.

In formal writing we can join ideas like these with linkers such as furthermore, moreover, what is more, in addition and besides

The cost of relocation would be very high. Furthermore, there are no suitable premises currently available and a move would be unpopular with staff.

Note that simple linkers like and, too and also are often used in formal writing along with the more formal ones. But linkers such as moreover and furthermore are mostly used for more formal writing and would sound strange in simple conversation:

I like seafood. What is more, I like spicy food.

One sentence or two?

You will notice that we can link two ideas in one sentence or two. Your choice will usually depend on how complicated each idea is and whether you are speaking or writing. Simple ideas in spoken English are often joined with simple linkers like and, but, because and so:

I felt tired so I went to bed early.

More complex ideas in written English are often joined in two sentences:

The disadvantages of relocating to a new site on the coast are considerable. Therefore we recommend retaining the existing premises in London for the time being.

When we link ideas in one sentence, each idea usually has a clause and the linker is usually a conjunction
:
The linkers and, but, so, while, whereas, and although are conjunctions and join ideas as clauses in one sentence.

The linkers however, on the other hand, therefore, furthermore etc. are adverbs and link ideas in two sentences.

Linking with prepositions

Some linkers are prepositions. They can link the same kinds of ideas but the grammar is different. They don’t link clauses or sentences. They show a link between a word or phrase, usually a noun or noun phrase, and the whole sentence.

Contrast
We can use the preposition despite and the phrase in spite of (which works in the same way) to show contrast:

I went for a walk despite the rain.
In spite of her heavy cold, she managed to give a brilliant presentation.

Note that the ideas following despite (the rain) and in spite of (her heavy cold) are not clauses, they are nouns or noun phrases.

Reason and result
We can use due to and because of (not because) in the same way:

Due to the terrible weather we have cancelled the picnic.
Note that the idea following due to (the terrible weather) is a noun phrase.

Addition.
Besides can be used as a preposition to add ideas (it can also be used as an adverb).

Besides the problem with transport, we also had to deal with a difficult financial situation.

Note how the idea following besides (the problem with transport) is a noun phrase.

Other ways of linking and other relationships

Be aware that there are other ways of linking ideas in English. These are just some of the more common ones.

There are also other relationships between ideas, not just those mentioned here.

Prepositions:
By the word preposition means position something before something. And in English grammar-
A preposition is a word placed or positioned before a noun or a pronoun or noun equivalent to show the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in a sentence.
The following are the words used as preposition in the sentence-
For, of, on, at, in, to, off, by, up, with, from, into, within, like, until, above, about, against, under, before, after, among, along, across, around, behind, bellow, beneath, beside, between, beyond, down, during, except, inside, near, since, toward, through and upon.

Role or function of preposition in a sentence:
A preposition sits before a noun or a pronoun to show noun’s or pronoun’s relationship to another word in the sentence. Preposition helps to construct a sentence.
Example:
- He is looking for papers.
- Rifat lives in Dhaka.
- Place the book on the table.
- I will go there after breakfast.
- Look at the sky clearly.
- You should stand by him.

Prepositions are five different kinds:
i. Simple Preposition such as in, at, by, of, for, on, over, under, up, to, from, out, about, under, with etc.
- He goes to school.
- Maruf is about seven.
- These people are coming from abroad.
ii. Double Preposition such as into, onto, within, without, from, among, toward, behind etc.
- He will be back within three days.
- We cannot do this job without you.
- She is different among the girls.
iii. Compound or Phrasal or Complex Prepositions are made of two or more words. Such as instead of, in front of, in between, out of, in behalf of, in place of, except for, throughout, underneath, on account of, according to etc.
- Rahat is talking in behalf of his team.
- Musfiq is playing in place of Rasel.
- They carried on rescue mission in spite of bad weather.
- Her GPA is 3.50 out of 4.00
iv. Participial Preposition.
Present or Past Participles can be used as Prepositions. Such as concerning, regarding, considering, pending etc.
Example:
- What does he know regarding this proposal?
- Considering the quality, the price is not high.

Following are the specific area to use prepositions.
i. Preposition of Place, Position and Direction (in, at, on, by, next, to, beside, )
In
At
On
By
Above
To
Towards
From
Into In the room.
At the window. At the office.
On the table.
Sitting by the woman.
Above the sky.
Go to university.
Towards east.
Fled from home.
Jumped into the well.

ii. Preposition of time
At
After
Before
By
During
From
For
In
On
Since
Within
throughout At 10 a.m., at dawn, at noon, at night, at an early age.
After 3 O’clock, after his arrival.
Before the 15th July.
By 4 p.m.
During five years. During the whole day/summer, during five years.
From 1st January.
For a week/month.
In June, in 2010, in the morning/evening/afternoon.
On Sunday.
Since he comes.
Within three days.
Throughout the year.

iii. Preposition of Reason or Purpose
For
Form
Of
Through
With For the good of the people, died for the country.
Died from fatigue, suffering from fever/cold.
Died of cancer.
Lost his pen through negligence
Trembles with fear shivers with fever.

Kinds of Adverbs

Here you can see the basic kinds of adverbs.

Adverbs of Manner

Adverbs of Manner tell us the manner or way in which something happens. They answer the question "how?". Adverbs of Manner mainly modify verbs.

He speaks slowly. (How does he speak?)
They helped us cheerfully. (How did they help us?)
James Bond drives his cars fast. (How does James Bond drive his cars?)
We normally use Adverbs of Manner with dynamic (action) verbs, not with stative or state verbs.
He ran fast. She came quickly. They worked happily.
She looked beautifully. It seems strangely. They are happily.
Adverbs of Place

Adverbs of Place tell us the place where something happens. They answer the question "where?". Adverbs of Place mainly modify verbs.

Please sit here. (Where should I sit?)
They looked everywhere. (Where did they look?)
Two cars were parked outside. (Where were two cars parked?)
Adverbs of Time

Adverbs of Time tell us something about the time that something happens. Adverbs of Time mainly modify verbs.

They can answer the question "when?":

He came yesterday. (When did he come?)
I want it now. (When do I want it?)
Or they can answer the question "how often?" (frequency):

They deliver the newspaper daily. (How often do they deliver the newspaper?)
We sometimes watch a movie. (How often do we watch a movie?)
Adverbs of Degree

Adverbs of Degree tell us the degree or extent to which something happens. They answer the question "how much?" or "to what degree?". Adverbs of Degree can modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs.

She entirely agrees with him. (How much does she agree with him?)
Mary is very beautiful. (To what degree is Mary beautiful? How beautiful is Mary?)
He drove quite dangerously. (To what degree did he drive dangerously? How dangerously did he drive?)

Common Grammatical Errors: Unclear Pronoun References
Unclear Pronoun Reference makes sentences confusing, vague, and difficult to understand.

Both Isabel and Barbara loved her children.
Determine the pronoun and the antecedent

A pronoun refers to a noun.
An antecedent is the noun to which the pronoun refers.
In our example, the pronoun is her.
The antecedent is either Isabel or Barbara.
Are they Isabel’s children?
Are they Barbara’s children?
From this sentence we cannot tell whose children they are. Because we cannot tell which of the nouns is the antecedent, this sentence is an unclear pronoun reference outlaw.

Both Isabel and Barbara loved Isabel’s children.
The clues:

Find the pronoun and replace it with the antecedent. If the pronoun reference is clear, the sentence should make sense.
1. Pronouns should clearly refer to a specific noun (antecedent). We should know to what each pronoun refers.

a) Eliminate ambiguity.

Jane told Helen that no one would take her away.

The pronoun: her
The antecedent: either Jane or Helen
unclear pronoun reference
“No one will take me away,” Jane told Helen.



b) Do not use “they” when referring to unspecified persons.

“They” must refer to specific people.
They seriously consider publishing short story collections when some of the stories have already been published in journals.

The pronoun: they
The antecedent (who are “they”?): unknown
unclear pronoun reference
Publishers seriously consider publishing short story collections when some of the stories have already been published in journals.

c) Only use “it” and “that” when referring to a specific word or phrase.

When Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters hide the dead bird, it means they hide the evidence.
The pronoun: it
The antecedent: “it” does not refer to a specific word in the sentence
unclear pronoun reference
By hiding the dead bird, Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters conceal the evidence.

2. Pronoun number

Pronouns must agree in number with their antecedents.
These rules match those of subject-verb agreement.
We will review three of the agreement rules.
a) Plural antecedents need plural pronouns, and singular antecedents need singular pronouns

Each person should follow their dreams.
Their: plural pronoun
Person: singular noun
Rehabilitated

Each person should follow his or her dream.

All people should follow their dreams.

b) With the conjunction “and,” the pronoun becomes plural.

Both David Adams Richards and Margaret Laurence are Canadian; she writes about fictional Canadian towns.
She: singular pronoun
David Adams Richards and Margaret Laurence: plural noun
Both David Adams Richards and Margaret Laurence are Canadian; they write about fictional Canadian towns.

c) With the conjunction “or” or “nor,” the pronoun should agree with the closest antecedent.

Either Karen or Len play with their children.
Their: plural pronoun
Len: nearest antecedent and singular noun
Either Karen or Len plays with his children.

Short Cut Rules (Right form of verbs)

RULE 1: Singular Subject=Singular Verb, Plural Subject=Plural verb
Ex. Reayad is a meritorious student. Vehicles create traffic jam.

RULE 2: Preposition (in,at,on,of,for,from,by,with,without,before,after,into,across,about)+noun or Verb +ing .
Ex. Television is an important source of entertainment or entertaining. Children are fond of using mobile Phone.

RULE 3: To +Verb1 but (Addicted to, Adverse to, Be used to, With a view to, Look forward to, Get used to, Be accustomed to)+ Verb+ing.

Ex. Tori went to London to get a good job. Poresh tried to join the Army .We are looking forward to hearing from you. I went to the Stage with a view to dancing. People of Bangladesh are used to eating by their hands.

RULE 4: Verb+article+Adverb+adjective+noun.
Ex. Bangladesh is a densely populated country. Alam is a very good boy.

RULE 5 : A , An , The +noun. The+noun or verb+ing+of.
The necessity of learning English is indescribable. The using of Mobile is available .A constitution is essential for a nation. He has an Umbrella.

RULE 6: (Can, could, may , might, Shall, should, will, would, must, used to, have to, need, dare, ought to )+ V1
Ex. He can do the Sum. It may rain today.Tori must study tonight.

RULE 7 : While+Verb+ing
Ex. While walking in the garden, I saw a snake. While sleeping I dreamt a good dream.

RULE 8: (have, has, had, get, got, getting, having )+V3 or Adjective.Ex. She got married yesterday. I had my car cleaned. Having taken the money, the thief ran away. Our Culture is getting westernized.

RULE 9: Passive Voice -(Can be, could be, may be , might be, Shall be, should be, will be, would be, must be, used to be, have to be, ought to be )+ V3
Ex. The work ought to be done. He will be helped by me.

RULE 10: I = am , (He, She, It) = is , (We, They, you ) = are 3rd person Singular Sub. = Has 3rd person Plural Sub. = Have
Ex. I am Sourov. He is driving a car. We are going home. They have won the game. He has eaten rice.

RULE 11: There+is/was/has+Singular Subject. There +are/were/have+plural Sub.
Ex. There is a Mosque in our village. There are two ponds in our Village.

RULE 12: .( Each, every , one, any)+ 1 or more singular Sub.+Singular Verb.
Ex. Each boy and each girl was present there. Every boy and girl has been given 100 tk.

RULE 13: (Somebody, Someone)+ Singular verb, (some boys, Some toys)+ plural verb.
Ex. Someone has stolen the pen. Some boys have failed in the examination.

RULE 14: (any, none, each, every, either, neither, one)+of+plural Sub.+singular Verb.
Ex. One of the boys is present there. None of them was present there. Either of them has stolen it.

RULE 15: ( Population, public, crowd, army, congress, committee, team, government, family, pair, dozen, scenery, knowledge, hundred, thousand, furniture, machinery, information, bread, money, advice, poetry, gallows, ethics, mathematics, physics, news, electronics, dynamics, 2/3….dollars, 2/3….miles, )+ singular verb.
Ex. Ill news runs a pace . Physics is a critical subject.

RULE 16 : (people, spectacles, trousers, scissors, brances, cloths, goods, headquarters, vegetables, laws, police, cattle, folk, circumstances, gentry.)+plural verb.
Ex. His circumstances are not good. People don’t eat the same food. Vegetables contain vitamin.

RULE 17: (who, whose, whom, which, that) follow only their before subject to choose a verb.
Ex. It is I who am your friend. It is you who are my friend.

RULE 18: Prefer to + verb+ing
Ex. Arman prefers to reading newspaper. Joynal prefers to eating betel.

RULE 19: ( Feel, love, hear, like, hate, see, forget, consist, seem, sound, smell, believe, know, wish, doubt, prefer, imagine, fear, taste, astonish, please, understand) they are used in present Indefinite tense not in continuous tense.
Ex. I see the bird. I hear news. I forget everything.

RULE 20: Distance/money/time+singular verb
Ex. Thirty miles is a long way. 100 years is a long time. Money begets money.

RULE 21 : Arithmetical Operations ( singular verb)
Ex. Five plus five is ten. Ten minus five is five. Ten divided by two is five.

RULE 22: (Always, regularly, generally, usually, occasionally, normally, naturally, frequently, everyday, daily, often) = Present Indefinite Tense.
Ex. Organizations frequently need employees who speak a standard form of English. English usually helps to get good job. He always prays his prayer.

RULE 23: (now, at this/the moment, at present, day by day, increasingly,rapidly.)=Present continuous Tense.
Ex. Mobile Phone users are increasing day by day. He is eating now.

RULE 24: ( yesterday, one day, ago, once, last, after a few days, last night, once upon a time,in the past, previously.) = Past IndefiniteTense.
Ex. I received your letter yesterday. One day I borrowed a book from you.

RULE 25: (Just, just now, already, yet, ever, lately, recently, immediately.) = present Perfect Tense.
Ex. He has transferred from Dhaka recently.We have shifted to safe place immediately.

RULE 26: (mind/worth/without/get used to/got used to/ be used to/past,can’t help, couldn’t help, would you mind)+verb+ing
Ex. Would you mind having a cup of tea? He can’t help smoking.

RULE 27: Active voice – ( am, is , are, was, were, have been, has been, had been, shall be, will be, shall have been, will have been)+verb+ing
Ex. Shawon is doing the sum. It has been raining since morning.

RULE 28: 9(ask, decide, demand, forget, happen, hope, learn, manage, neglect, offer, plain, prepare, promise, remember, seem, try , want)+ to
Ex. Mosarrof neglects his friend. It seems to me false. We have decided to start a business.

RULE 29: ( had better, had rather, would better, would rather, let, must, need, dare, make, would sooner, had sooner)+verb1
Ex. He had better read news paper regularly. I will not let you enter the class room.

RULE 30: ( It is time, It is high time, wish, fancy) = Past Indefinite
Ex. I fancy I turned a pale. It is high time we developed our country.

RULE 31: Lest…. Should…
Ex. Walk fast lest you should miss the train. Read attentively lest you should fail in the exam.

RULE 32 : (if, wish, as if , as though) unreal past = were
Ex. If I were a doctor, I could treat the poor. I wish I were a king.

RULE 33: If Past Indefinite tense, Sub+would/could/might+verb1
Ex. If I were a doctor, I could treat the poor. If you came , I would go.

RULE 34: If + Present Indefinite, future Indefinite tense.or Sub.+may/can/shall/wil+v1
Ex. If he runs in the rain, he will catch cold. If it rains , I will not go out.

RULE 35: If + present perfect tense, Sub.+migh have/could have/ would have+verb 3
Ex. If they had started earlier, they would have reached there in time. If I had seen him, I might have told him the news.

RULE 36: Present Indefinite or Present perfect tense +since+Past Indefinite tense.
Ex. It is many years since I came to Dhaka. Many years have passed since I had met her.

RULE 37: Past Indefinite tense+ since+Past perfect tense.
Ex. Many years passed since I had seen her last.

RULE 38: Past Perfect+before+past Indefinite. past Indefinite+after+past perfect.
Ex.The patient had died before the doctor came.The patient died after the doctor had come.

RULE 39: Beginning of the sentence- verb + ing or to + v1 (gerund, infinitive)
Ex. Rising early is a good habit. Sleeping is necessary to life. To take drugs leads a man to death.

RULE 40: Verb+(how/what/when/which/why)+to
Ex. Galib knows what to do. She taught me how to make a cup of tea.

RULE 41: Things = interesting , person = interested
Ex. History is very interesting subject. I am very much interested to meet him.

RULE 42: Uncountable noun ( water, air, tea, sugar, environment, furniture, kindness, rainfall, reputation, wood, paper, gum, courtesy, earth, bread, oxygen, smoke, bangla, English.)+singular verb.
Ex. Air is very important element of the environment. Water plays a vital role in agriculture.

RULE 43 : No+ noun , Not+ adjective/adverb.
Ex. He has no education .He is not interested to study.

RULE 44: Keep + noun+adjective.
Ex. The teacher kept the boy silent.

RULE 45: No sooner had….than, Scarcely had…..when, hardly had…before/when.
Ex. No sooner had he seen the police than he ran away.

RULE 46: (prefer, preferable, senior, junior)+to ( not than).
Ex. Prottasha is junior to me. I prefer to reading to writing.

RULE 47: Don’t use ‘to’ before (home, abroad, here, there)
Ex. He went abroad last month. He will go home tomorrow.

RULE 48: (Sun, Death, Summer, Winter, Fear, Anger, War) = His
Ex. The sun sheds his beams on earth. The death lays his icy hand even on the earth.

RULE 49: (Earth, Moon, charity, Beauty, softness, Hope, Spring, Modesty, Nature, Peace, Virtue, Mercy, Justice ) = Her
Ex. The moon reflects her shade on earth. The Spring comes with all her beauties.

RULE 50: If Simple Sentence contains two main verbs , It may be 2nd verb with ing or to+2nd verb with present form.
Ex. I saw him going . I am going to English World.

English Express Kabir Ahmed, BA (Hons), MA (English), DU
Lecturer in English
Served at Mirzapur Cadet College
01713330222, X18, Razia Sultana Road, Mdpur, Dhaka-1207

Students of English, Cass-XI

Students of English Express, Class XII

Students of English Express

Learners of English Express