English literature

کیا waiting for Godot ایک وجودی ڈرامہ(Existentialistic drama) ہے۔ میرے خیال میں اس ڈرامے کے مرکزی تھیم (Theme)کو وجودیت(Existentialism ) سے کوئی تعلق ہی نہیں ہے کیونکہ وجودیت انسانی زندگی میں معنوویت(Meaning ) پیدا کرنے کے لیے انسان کو خود ذمہ دار قرار دیتی ہے ۔ اور عمل پر ابھارتی ہے کہ انسان اپنی تقدیر اور مقدر خود تخلیق کر سکتا ہے جبکہ مذکورہ بالا ڈرامہ انسانی زندگی کو ہر حال میں بے معنی( Meaningless )قرار دیتا ہے اور انتہا درجہ کی قنوطیت (Pessimism )پھیلاتا ہے ۔ یہ ڈرامہ سرمایہ دارنہ نظام کی عوام کے خلاف سازش میں سب سے بڑا حصہ دار ہے جس کے ذریعے عوام میں زندگی سے مایوسی کا درس دیا گیا ہے تاکہ لوگوں کو رشتہ زندگی کی عملیت سے توڑا جائے اور جوہری حسیت کو فروغ دیا جا سکے عوام زندگی کی لایعنیت Absurdism میں کھو کرسرمایہ دارانہ نظام کے تضادات پر سوال نہ اٹھا سکیں۔

points to b noted my lord !!!!

LINGUISTICS AND OTHER RELEVANT

APPROACHES.

of linguistics

of linguistics

• linguistics - the study of language in abstract and model form

linguistics - the study of language and cognition (thinking)

linguistics - the theory of grammar as a mental system that generates complete sentences

theories of grammar - language as used and coming from use

linguistics - the study of mathematical language laws and corresponding general theories

- the usage of vocalized sounds and systems of sounds to form language

- the study of language writing systems

- the property of sound and meaning change in language

- the property of grammar that governs sentence structure

- the complete set of words in a language

- the study of meaning as encoded in language

- the study of how context contributes to meaning

• Descriptive linguistics - describing how a particular language is used

linguistics - the place of language in its wider social and cultural context, and its role in making and maintaining cultural practices and societal structures

linguistics - study of historical language change over time

linguistics - comparing languages to find similarities and historical connections

- the study of the speech faculty

- the study of writing shapes as assigned to sounds or ideas

- the study of word histories and origins

- the study of society's effects on language

• linguistics - finding solutions to real-life problems related to language

linguistics - the use of computation applied to language databasing, analysis, translation, and synthesis

linguistics - language science applied to the processes of law and justice

Internet linguistics - the study of language usage on the Internet

Language assessment - assessing first or second language faculty in individuals

Language documentation - comprehensive description of the grammar and use practices of languages of a particular group

Language revitalization - is an attempt to halt or reverse the decline of a language or to revive an extinct one

Language education - teaching specific language and language science

Linguistic anthropology - study of how language influences social life

• - is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce language

Language - the study of how children and adults acquire language knowledge and ability

Language development - the study of early language formation

-language acquisition - the study of how a second language is learned

Neurolinguistics - study of language from a neuroscience perspective

Evolutionary linguistics - is a subfield of psycholinguistics that studies the psychosocial and cultural factors involved in the origin of language and the development of linguistic universals

Subfields, by linguistic structures studied

Sub-fields of structure-focused linguistics include:

• Phonetics – study of the physical properties of speech (or signed) production and perception

• Phonology – study of sounds (or signs) as discrete, abstract elements in the speaker's mind that distinguish meaning

• Morphology – study of internal structures of words and how they can be modified

• Syntax – study of how words combine to form grammatical sentences

• Semantics – study of the meaning of words (lexical semantics) and fixed word combinations (phraseology), and how these combine to form the meanings of sentences

• Pragmatics – study of how utterances are used in communicative acts – and the role played by context and nonlinguistic knowledge in the transmission of meaning

• Discourse analysis – analysis of language use in texts (spoken, written, or signed)

• Linguistic typology – comparative study of the similarities and differences between language structures in the world's languages.

Subfields, by nonlinguistic factors studied

• Applied linguistics – study of language-related issues applied in everyday life, notably language policies, planning, and education. (Constructed language fits under Applied linguistics.)

• Biolinguistics – study of natural as well as human-taught communication systems in animals, compared to human language.

• Clinical linguistics – application of linguistic theory to the field of Speech-Language Pathology.

• Computational linguistics – study of linguistic issues in a way that is 'computationally responsible', i.e., taking careful note of computational consideration of algorithmic specification and computational complexity, so that the linguistic theories devised can be shown to exhibit certain desirable computational properties implementations.

• Developmental linguistics – study of the development of linguistic ability in individuals, particularly the acquisition of language in childhood.

• Evolutionary linguistics – study of the origin and subsequent development of language by the human species.

• Historical linguistics – study of language change over time. Also called diachronic linguistics.

• Language geography – study of the geographical distribution of languages and linguistic features.

• Neurolinguistics – study of the structures in the human brain that underlie grammar and communication.

• Psycholinguistics – study of the cognitive processes and representations underlying language use.

• Sociolinguistics – study of variation in language and its relationship with social factors.

• Stylistics – study of linguistic factors that place a discourse in context.

Other subfields of linguistics

• Contrastive linguistics

• Corpus linguistics

• Dialectology

• Discourse analysis

• Grammar

• Interlinguistics

• Language didactics

• Language learning

• Language teaching

• Language for specific purposes

• Lexicology

• Linguistic statistics

• Orthography

• Rhetoric

• Text linguistics

Schools, movements, and approaches of linguistics

• Cognitive linguistics

• Danish School

• Functionalism

• Generative linguistics

• Geneva School

• Neo-Grammarians

• Prague School

• Prescription and description

• Soviet linguistics

• Stratificational linguistics

• Structuralism

• Systemic linguistics

• SIL International

• Tagmemics

Semiotics – investigates the relationship between signs and what they signify more broadly. From the perspective of semiotics, language can be seen as a sign or symbol, with the world as its representation.

Basic concepts

What basic concepts / terms do I have to know to talk about linguistics?

• Morphology

morpheme, inflection, paradigm, declension, derivation, compound

• Phonology

phoneme, allophone, segment, mora, syllable, foot, stress, tone

• Grammar

tense, aspect, mood and modality, grammatical number, grammatical gender, case

• Syntax

phrase, clause, grammatical function, grammatical voice

• Lexicology

word, lexeme, lemma, lexicon, vocabulary, terminology

• Semantics

meaning, sense, entailment, truth condition, compositionality

• Pragmatics

presupposition, implicature, deixis

Linguistics scholars

People who had a significant influence on the development of the field

• John Langshaw Austin

• Émile Benveniste

• Leonard Bloomfield

• Franz Bopp

• Noam Chomsky

• David Crystal

• Daniel Everett

• M.A.K. Halliday

• Louis Hjelmslev

• Roman Jakobson

• Sir William Jones

• Pāṇini

• Kenneth L. Pike

• Rasmus Rask

• Edward Sapir

• Ferdinand de Saussure

• August Schleicher

• John R. Searle

• Nikolai Trubetzkoy

• Noah Webster

• Benjamin Lee Whorf

Aristotle

𝕆𝕋ℍ𝔼𝕃𝕃𝕆.....

𝕔𝕤𝕤 .....𝕖𝕟𝕘𝕝𝕚𝕤𝕙 𝕝𝕚𝕥𝕖𝕣𝕒𝕥𝕦𝕣𝕖 𝕡𝕡𝕣