Junior Microbiologist

Monkeypox is caused by monkeypox virus, a member of the Orthopoxvirus genus in the family Poxviridae.
Monkeypox is a viral zoonotic disease that occurs primarily in tropical rainforest areas of Central and West Africa and is occasionally exported to other regions.
Monkeypox typically presents clinically with fever, rash and swollen lymph nodes and may lead to a range of medical complications.
Monkeypox is usually a self-limited disease with the symptoms lasting from 2 to 4 weeks. Severe cases can occur. In recent times, the case fatality ratio has been around 3-6%.
Monkeypox is transmitted to humans through close contact with an infected person or animal, or with material contaminated with the virus.
Monkeypox virus is transmitted from one person to another by close contact with lesions, body fluids, respiratory droplets and contaminated materials such as bedding.
The clinical presentation of monkeypox resembles that of smallpox, a related orthopoxvirus infection which was declared eradicated worldwide in 1980. Monkeypox is less contagious than smallpox and causes less severe illness.
Vaccines used during the smallpox eradication programme also provided protection against monkeypox. Newer vaccines have been developed of which one has been approved for prevention of monkeypox
An antiviral agent developed for the treatment of smallpox has also been licensed for the treatment of monkeypox

The World Health Organisation said it expects to identify more cases of monkeypox as it expands surveillance in countries where the disease is not typically found.

As of Saturday, 92 confirmed cases and 28 suspected cases of monkeypox have been reported from 12 member states that are not endemic for the virus, the UN agency said, adding it will provide further guidance and recommendations in coming days for countries on how to mitigate the spread of monkeypox.

For more: https://tribune.com.pk/story/2357831/1

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The World Health Organization (WHO) said that it is tracking a new COVID-19 "variant of interest," and while the strain is nowhere near as widespread as other mutations, the organization says it is showing some signs of resistance to vaccines.

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BIOCHEMICAL TESTS:
1. COAGULASE TEST:
A coagulase test is a biochemical test that is used to differentiate Staphylococcus aureus from other Staphylococci species like S. epidermidis and S. saprophyticus on the basis of the ability to produce the coagulase enzyme.

PRINCIPLE:
Coagulase is an enzymatic protein that is a thermostable thrombin-like substance, which converts fibrinogen into fibrin resulting in clotting or clumping. In S. aureus, two different forms of coagulase are found; free coagulase and bound coagulase.

REAGENTS AND SUPPLIES:
- Frozen plasma (preferably rabbit plasma) with EDTA. Human plasma is commonly not used for the test, as it is less sensitive and potentially infectious with human pathogenic viruses.
- 5% CaCl2 (optional)
- Loops or sterile sticks
- Glass or plastic tubes
- Glass slides

PROCEDURE:
Coagulase can be detected by two different methods; tube test and slide test.

1. SLIDE TEST:
- About 10 µl of deionized water or physiological saline is added to a slide.
- Several colonies from a fresh culture are collected with an inoculating loop and are emulsified into the water to obtain a smooth milk-colored suspension.
- A drop of a rabbit or human plasma is added to the slide, and the clumping is observed immediately, not to exceed 10 seconds.

2. TUBE TEST:
- The plasma is diluted with physiological saline. (Add 0.2 ml plasma in 1.8 ml saline)
- 5 ml of the diluted plasma is then added to a test tube. About 5 drops of the test organism culture are added to the test tube.
- The test tube is mixed and incubated at 37°C for an hour.
- The tube is finally observed for clot formation. If no clotting is observed, the tube should be examined at 30 minutes intervals of up to 6 hours.

RESULTS:
SLIDE TEST:
- A positive test is the demonstration of the agglutination of the bacterial cells after the plasma is added.
- negative test is demonstrated by the lack of agglutination.

TUBE TEST:
A positive test meets one of the following criteria:

1. Complete clot formation or any degree of clot formation before 24 hours.
2. No clot formation after the addition of 1 or 2 drops of 5% CaCl2 to a tube without a clot at 24 hours.
A negative test meets one of the following criteria:

1. A lack of clot formation at 24 h at 25°C.
2. No clot after 24 hours at 35°C, but after the addition of 1 or 2 drops of 5% CaCl2 to the tube, a clot forms.

Coagulase Positive organisms: Staphylococcus aureus and other animal host bacteria like S. pseudintermedius, S. intermedius, S. schleiferi, S. delphini, S. hyicus, S. lutrae, S. hyicus

Coagulase Negative organisms: Staphylococcus epidermidis, S. saprophyticus, S. warneri, S. hominis, S. caprae, etc.

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