Etea/mdcat/mcat/ecat/aga Khan/nust/Neet/ entry test preparation

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💥Complex molecule which on hydrolysis produce polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketones.

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💥These are simple sugar, sweet in taste and easily soluble in water.

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️From Greek word for sweet wine; grape sugar, blood sugar, dextrose.

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Greek word for milk--"galact", found as a component of lactose in milk.

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Latin word for fruit--"fructus", also known as levulose,
found in fruits and honey; sweetest sugar.

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Ribose and Deoxyribose are found in the backbone structure of RNA and DNA, respectively.

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💥Contain two monosaccharides, less sweet in taste and less soluble in water.

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French word for sugar--"sucre", a disaccharide containing glucose and fructose; table sugar, cane sugar, beet sugar.

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Latin word for milk--"lact"; a disaccharide found in milk containing glucose and galactose.

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French word for "malt"; a disaccharide containing two units of glucose; found in germinating grains, used to make beer.

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💥Most complex and most abundant carbohydrates in nature.

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as the polysaccharide starch. The cereal grains (wheat, rice, corn, oats, barley) as well as tubers such as potatoes are rich in starch.

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The major component in the rigid cell walls in plants is cellulose and is a linear polysaccharide polymer with many glucose monosaccharide units.

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This is the storage form of glucose in animals and humans which is analogous to the starch in plants. Glycogen is synthesized and stored mainly in the liver and the muscles.

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💥Monosaccharides can be further classified by the number of carbons present.

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(6-carbons) are by far the most prevalent.
👉Six = Hexose
👉Five = Pentose
👉Three = Triose
👉Glucose
👉️Ribose
👉Glyceraldehyde
👉️Galactose
👉Fructose

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contain the aldehyde group - Monosaccharides in this group are glucose, galactose, ribose, and glyceraldehyde.

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contain the ketone group -
The major sugar in this group is fructose.

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Those sugar which reduced to metallic ion. All monosacchrides, two disaccharide lactose and maltose, polysacchride dextrin all are reducing sugars.

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Contain no hemiacetal groups. Sucrose and all polysaccharides are in this group..

Kreb cycle
The citric acid cycle (CAC) – also known as the TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle) or the Krebs cycle is a series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to release stored energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. In addition, the cycle provides precursors of certain amino acids, as well as the reducing agent NADH, that are used in numerous other reactions. Its central importance to many biochemical pathways suggests that it was one of the earliest components of metabolism and may have originated abiogenically. Even though it is branded as a 'cycle', it is not necessary for metabolites to follow only one specific route; at least three segments of the citric acid cycle have been recognized.
The name of this metabolic pathway is derived from the citric acid (a tricarboxylic acid, often called citrate, as the ionized form predominates at biological pH) that is consumed and then regenerated by this sequence of reactions to complete the cycle. The cycle consumes acetate (in the form of acetyl-CoA) and water, reduces NAD+ to NADH, releasing carbon dioxide. The NADH generated by the citric acid cycle is fed into the oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport) pathway. The net result of these two closely linked pathways is the oxidation of nutrients to produce usable chemical energy in the form of ATP.

In eukaryotic cells, the citric acid cycle occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion. In prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria, which lack mitochondria, the citric acid cycle reaction sequence is performed in the cytosol with the proton gradient for ATP production being across the cell's surface (plasma membrane) rather than the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. The overall yield of energy-containing compounds from the TCA cycle is three NADH, one FADH2, and one GTP.

Teacher who make legal Studies boring are criminals.

BISE Peshawar
Pre Medical Toppers
1st 1084 Adan Tariq Jinnah College Peshawar
2nd 1078 Jamshaid Capital Degree College
3rd 1076 Muhammad Shoaib Islamia College Peshawar

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➡it is the process of releasing energy within sugars. In glycolysis, a six-carbon sugar known as glucose is split into two molecules of a three-carbon sugar called pyruvate.
➡This multistep process yields two ATP molecules containing free energy, two pyruvate molecules, two high energy, electron-carrying molecules of NADH, and two molecules of water.
➡Glycolysis can occur with or without oxygen. In the presence of oxygen, glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration. In the absence of oxygen, glycolysis allows cells to make small amounts of ATP through a process of fermentation.
➡Glycolysis takes place in the cytosol of the cell's cytoplasm. A net of two ATP molecules are produced through glycolysis (two are used during the process and four are produced.) Learn more about the 10 steps of glycolysis below.

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➡The enzyme hexokinase phosphorylates or adds a phosphate group to glucose in a cell's cytoplasm. In the process, a phosphate group from ATP is transferred to glucose producing glucose 6-phosphate or G6P. One molecule of ATP is consumed during this phase.

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➡The enzyme phosphoglucomutase isomerizes G6P into its isomer fructose 6-phosphate or F6P. Isomers have the same molecular formula as each other but different atomic arrangements.

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➡The kinase phosphofructokinase uses another ATP molecule to transfer a phosphate group to F6P in order to form fructose 1,6-bisphosphate or FBP. Two ATP molecules have been used so far.

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➡The enzyme aldolase splits fructose 1,6-bisphosphate into a ketone and an aldehyde molecule. These sugars, dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GAP), are isomers of each other.

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➡The enzyme triose-phosphate isomerase rapidly converts DHAP into GAP (these isomers can inter-convert). GAP is the substrate needed for the next step of glycolysis.

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➡The enzyme glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) serves two functions in this reaction. First, it dehydrogenates GAP by transferring one of its hydrogen (H⁺) molecules to the oxidizing agent nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) to form NADH + H⁺.
➡Next, GAPDH adds a phosphate from the cytosol to the oxidized GAP to form 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (BPG). Both molecules of GAP produced in the previous step undergo this process of dehydrogenation and phosphorylation.

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➡The enzyme phosphoglycerokinase transfers a phosphate from BPG to a molecule of ADP to form ATP. This happens to each molecule of BPG. This reaction yields two 3-phosphoglycerate (3 PGA) molecules and two ATP molecules.

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➡The enzyme phosphoglyceromutase relocates the P of the two 3 PGA molecules from the third to the second carbon to form two 2-phosphoglycerate (2 PGA) molecules.

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➡The enzyme enolase removes a molecule of water from 2-phosphoglycerate to form phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP). This happens for each molecule of 2 PGA from Step 8.

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➡The enzyme pyruvate kinase transfers a P from PEP to ADP to form pyruvate and ATP. This happens for each molecule of PEP. This reaction yields two molecules of pyruvate and two ATP molecules..

🌐Enzyme Classification and Nomenclature🌐
International union of Biochemistry classified all enzymes into six major classes based on the type of reaction they catalyze and reaction mechanism.

🎟️Nomenclature:
The name of an enzyme has two parts. The first part indicates name of it's Substrate and second part ending "ase" indicates the type of reaction it catalyzes. Each enzyme has a four digit code (EC) number.
👉The first digit indicates the major class.
👉The second digit indicates sub-class.
👉The third digit denotes sub sub-class.
👉The final digit indicates specific enzyme.

🎟️The six major classes of enzymes with some example are:
🗨️ Oxidoreductases:
They catalyze oxidation and reduction reactions.
Example👇
Alcohol + NAD+ >>>> Aldehyde or ketone + NADH + H+.

🗨️Transferases:
They catalyze transfer of groups.
Example👇
Hexose +ATP >>>Hexose -6- phosphate +ADP.

🗨️Hydrolases:
They catalyze hydrolysis of peptide, ester, glycosyl, etc bonds.
Example👇
Acetyl choline –––> Choline + Acetic acid.

🗨️Lyases:
They catalyze removal of groups from substrates by mechanisms other than hydrolysis forming double bonds.
Example👇
CooH CooH
H–C–OH. –––> C–H
H–C–H. < ––– H–C +H2O
COOH. COOH
Melate. Fumarate
Fumerase catalyzed reaction.

🗨️Isomerase:
They catalyze interconversions of optical, functional, and geometrical isomers.
Example👇
L-alanine –––> D-alanine

🗨️Ligases:
They catyze linking together of two compounds. The linking is coupled to the breaking of phosphate from ATP.
Example👇
Glutamate +NH4 ———> Glutamine.

Acid
a chemical substance that neutralizes alkalis, dissolves some metals, and turns litmus red; typically, a corrosive or sour-tasting liquid of this kind.

Chemistry
a molecule or other entity that can donate a proton or accept an electron pair in reactions.

Arrhenius Acid
An Arrhenius acid is a molecule that when dissolved in water will donate an H+ in solution. Simply put, a proton donor.
The trick to recognizing an Arrhenius acid is to look for a molecule that starts with an H, and typically contains an oxygen or halogen.
Common examples of Arrhenius acids include:
Hydrochloric Acid – HCl
Nitric Acid – HNO3
Sulfuric Acid – H2SO4
Acetic Acid – HCH3CO2
and so many more…
An acid dissociating in water does not form a free-floating proton. Instead one of the water molecules in solution will grab the H+ yielding a hydronium or H3O+ ion. Here’s what happens when nitric acid dissociates in water.
Arrhenius Base
An Arrhenius base is a molecule that when dissolved in water will break down to yield an OH- or hydroxide in solution. To recognize the Arrhenius base look for a molecule ending in OH, but not following CHx which refers to an alcohol.
Arrhenius base examples include:
Sodium hydroxide – NaOH
Potassium hydroxide – KOH
Magnesium hydroxide – Mg(OH)2
and so many more…

Bronsted-Lowry Acid
A Bronsted-Lowry acid, like an Arrhenius acid, is a compound that breaks down to give an H+ in solution. The only difference is that the solution does not have to be water. We can still refer to the exact same acids as listed for the Arrhenius acid examples, but this time we’ll change the solvent to ammonia, alcohol, or anything else.
We saw what happens when nitric acid (HNO3) dissolves in water. Now let’s see what happens when it dissolves in ammonia (NH3) or even methanol (CH3OH)
Nitric acid still dissolved to yield an H+ and NO3-, but this time it was NH3 and not water that picked up the free-floating proton.
Bronsted-Lowry Base
This is where we start to see the difference between the Bronsted-Lowry and Arrhenius definitions. While the Arrhenius base referred specifically to the hydroxide (OH-) ion, the Bronsted-Lowry base refers to any atom or ion capable of accepting or bonding to a free proton in solution.
Referring back to the HNO3 + NH3 reaction above, when ammonia picks up the free H+ it acts as a proton-acceptor. NH3 is the Bronsted-Lowry base in this example.
Additional examples include:
Methanol – CH3OH
Formaldehyde – H2CO
And even water – H2O
Lewis Acids and bases
The Lewis definition for acids and bases is the most extreme because it’s not dealing with protons specifically. Instead the Lewis definition deals with the movement of electrons.
Lewis Acid/Base Mnemonic
Think of Lewis as ‘lectrons’
Lewis Acid
A Lewis acid refers to an atom or molecule that accepts an electron pair. Think back to your ‘pushing arrows’ for orgo mechanisms. Every time you draw an arrow representing the movement of electrons, the atom getting attacked or accepting those electrons is the Lewis acid in that reaction.
Common Lewis Acid Examples in Organic Chemistry
Borane – BH3 (hydroboration reaction)
Aluminum Chloride – AlCl3 (electrophilic aromatic substitution reaction)
Iron (III) Bromide – FeCl3 (electrophilic aromatic substitution reaction)
Lewis Base
Since the Lewis definition has to do with the transfer of electrons, you can guess by now that a Lewis Base is an electron pair donor. Once again think back to your reaction mechanisms. The molecule using its electrons to attack another atom is an electron pair donor and a Lewis Base.

Types of acid
0rganic
Oxalic Acid : Tomato
Tartaric Acid : Tamarind
Malic Acid : Tea.apple
Citric Acid : Citrus Fruits
Lactic Acid : milk
Oxalic Acid : Tomato
Tartaric Acid : Tamarind
Malic Acid : Tea
Acetic Acid : Vinegar
In organic acid
Hydrochloric acid HCl.
Nitric acid HNO3
Phosphoric acid H3PO4
Sulfuric acid H2SO4
Boric acid H3BO3
Hydrofluoric acid HF.
Hydrobromic acid HBr.
Perchloric acid HClO4

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ACIDS:
1. Acids have a SOUR taste
2. All acids are SOLUBLE in water
3. Acids solutions turn BLUE litmus paper RED
4. Acid solutions have a pH values < 7
5. Most acid solutions are CORROSIVE
6. All dilute acids CONDUCT ELECTRICITY due to the presence MOBILE IONS in solution

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ACIDS:
1. React with reactive metals (above H in Reactivity Series) to form Salt & Hydrogen Gas
2. React with Metal Carbonates to form Salt, Carbon Dioxide & Water
3. React with Bases/Alkali to form Salt & Water (Neutralistion Reaction)

Uses of Acids:
1. Vinegar, used in the kitchen, is a liquid containing 3-6% acetic acid. It is used in pickles and in many food preparations.
2. Lemon and orange juice contains citric acid. Citric acid is used in the preparation of effervescent salts and as a food preservative.
3. Acids have been put to many uses in industry. Nitric acid and sulphuric acid are used in the manufacture of fertilizers, dyes, paints, drugs and explosives.
4. Sulphuric acid is used in batteries, which are used in cars, etc. Tannic acid is used in the manufacture of ink and leather.
5. Hydrochloric acid is used to make aqua regia, which is used to dissolve noble metals such as gold and platinum.
6. Sulphuric acid is used in manufacturing fertilizers such as super phosphate, ammonium sulpahte etc.
Expect base alkali nd pH scale next week

Isomeric forms of glucose.
__Aldo isomers
__keto isomers

Tips for solving physics numerical
Numercal type quests k liye ye baatain apny mind me rakhni hain aap ny...
1. Aap ko us topic k baaray me basics clear hon
2. Aap ko us topic se related jitny bhi formulae hain un ko us waqt zehn me le aana hai....
3. Jb aap solve krny lga to aik aik kr k dekho mind me k kon sa formula is question me fit ho skta hai... jo blkul ni ho skty un ko to jaldi se mind se exclude krty jao...
4.last me aik aisa formula ap k pass bach jaiga k us me jo quantities hongi quest me bhi wohi hongi aap ko clear ho jaiga k ye formula lgna hai is me...
5.next step ye hai k us formula ko dekhna hai k further to ni derive ho skta kia....
Jaisay F= ma ...a= Vf-Vi/t
F=m(Vf-Vi/t)
Is tarah se aap ko formulae ko jaldi se interconvert krna aana chaiye ...is k liye roz roz thori thori practice kia kro...
6. Last step values lga kr solve kr lo...
7. Kuch numerical boht simple but tricky hoty hain..
Un k liye apny mind me sochna hai k ye kis topic se liya gaya hau...
Us k baad sochna hai k us topic me imp points aur exceptions kia thin
... us previous knowledge se us quest ko relate kr k dekhna ans mil jaiga....

To sum up all discussion...
Aap ny itna lamba numerical dekh kr darna ni hai ... aap ko yakeen hona chaiye k agar ye quest mdcat ka hai to hum is ko solve kr skty hain ku k mdcat me engineering k quest to daingay ni... asal me kaafi bachay numerical k lambi statement dekh kr e dar jaty hain... jahan pr 90% confidence loose ho jata un ka aur mind blank ho jata...
Bs ghabrana ni hai aap k lvl ka e hai wo quest aap solve kr skty ho....
Bs basic concepts clear rakhny hain....