General knowledge & CSS Time's

History Saudi Arabia to Present

Saudi Arabia traces its roots back to the earliest civilizations of the Arabian Peninsula. Over the centuries, the peninsula has played an important role in history as an ancient trade center and as the birthplace of Islam, one of the world’s major monotheistic religions.

Since King Abdulaziz Al-Saud established the modern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932, its transformation has been astonishing.

In a few short decades, the Kingdom has turned itself from a desert nation to a modern, sophisticated state and a major player on the international stage.

Saudi Leaders:
King Abdulaziz
King Saud
King Faisal
King Khalid
King Fahd
King Abdullah
King Salman
Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman bin Abdulaziz
Early History
The first concrete evidence of human presence in the Arabian Peninsula dates back 15,000 to 20,000 years. Bands of hunter-gatherers roamed the land, living off wild animals and plants.

As the European ice cap melted during the last Ice Age, some 15,000 years ago, the climate in the peninsula became dry. Vast plains once covered with lush grasslands gave way to scrubland and deserts, and wild animals vanished. River systems also disappeared, leaving in their wake the dry river beds (wadis) that are found in the peninsula today.

This climate change forced humans to move into the lush mountain valleys and oases. No longer able to survive as hunter-gatherers, they had to develop another means of survival. As a result, agriculture developed – first in Mesopotamia, then the Nile River Valley, and eventually spreading across the Middle East.

The development of agriculture brought other advances. Pottery allowed farmers to store food. Animals, including goats, cattle, sheep, horses and camels, were domesticated, and people abandoned hunting altogether. These advances made intensive farming possible. In turn, settlements became more permanent, leading to the foundations of what we call civilization – language, writing, political systems, art and architecture.

An Ancient Trade Center
Located between the two great centers of civilization, the Nile River Valley and Mesopotamia, the Arabian Peninsula was the crossroads of the ancient world. Trade was crucial to the area’s development; caravan routes became trade arteries that made life possible in the sparsely populated peninsula.

The people of the peninsula developed a complex network of trade routes to transport agricultural goods highly sought after in Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley and the Mediterranean Basin. These items included almonds from Taif, dates from the many oases, and aromatics such as frankincense and myrrh from the Tihama plain.

Spices were also important trade items. They were shipped across the Arabian Sea from India and then transported by caravan.

The huge caravans traveled from what is now Oman and Yemen, along the great trade routes running through Saudi Arabia’s Asir Province and then through Makkah and Madinah, eventually arriving at the urban centers of the north and west.

The people of the Arabian Peninsula remained largely untouched by the political turmoil in Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley and the eastern Mediterranean. Their goods and services were in great demand regardless of which power was dominant at the moment – Babylon, Egypt, Persia, Greece or Rome. In addition, the peninsula’s great expanse of desert formed a natural barrier that protected it from invasion by powerful neighbors.

The Birth of Islam
Around the year 610, Muhammad, a native of the thriving commercial center of Makkah, received a message from God (in Arabic, Allah) through the Angel Gabriel. As more revelations bid him to proclaim the oneness of God universally, the Prophet Muhammad’s following grew.

In 622, learning of an assassination plot against him, the Prophet led his followers to the town of Yathrib, which was later named Madinat Al-Nabi (City of the Prophet) and now known simply as Madinah. This was the Hijrah, or migration, which marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar.

Within the next few years, several battles took place between the followers of the Prophet Muhammad and the pagans of Makkah. By 628, when Madinah was entirely in the hands of the Muslims, the Prophet had unified the tribes so successfully that he and his followers reentered Makkah without bloodshed.

The Islamic Empire
Less than 100 years after the birth of Islam, the Islamic Empire extended from Spain to parts of India and China. Although the political centers of power had moved out of the Arabian Peninsula, trade flourished in the area.

Also, a large number of pilgrims began regularly visiting the peninsula, with some settling in the two holy cities of Makkah and Madinah. These pilgrims facilitated the exchange of ideas and cultures between the people of the peninsula and other civilizations of the Arab and Muslim worlds.

The emergence of Arabic as the language of international learning was another major factor in the cultural development of the Arabian Peninsula. The Muslim world became a center for learning and scientific advances during what is known as the “Golden Age.” Muslim scholars made major contributions in many fields, including medicine, biology, philosophy, astronomy, arts and literature. Many of the ideas and methods pioneered by Muslim scholars became the foundation of modern sciences.

The Islamic Empire thrived well into the 17th century, when it broke up into smaller Muslim kingdoms. The Arabian Peninsula gradually entered a period of relative isolation, although Makkah and Madinah remained the spiritual heart of the Islamic world and continued to attract pilgrims from many countries.

The First Saudi State
In the early 18th century, a Muslim scholar and reformer named Shaikh Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab began advocating a return to the original form of Islam. Abdul Wahhab was initially persecuted by local religious scholars and leaders who viewed his teachings as a threat to their power bases. He sought protection in the town of Diriyah, which was ruled by Muhammad bin Saud.

Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab and Muhammad bin Saud formed an agreement to dedicate themselves to restoring the pure teachings of Islam to the Muslim community. In that spirit, bin Saud established the First Saudi State in 1727, which prospered under the spiritual guidance of bin Abdul Wahhab, known simply as the Shaikh.

By 1788, the Saudi State ruled over the entire central plateau known as the Najd. By the early 19th century, its rule extended to most of the Arabian Peninsula, including Makkah and Madinah.

The popularity and success of the Al-Saud rulers aroused the suspicion of the Ottoman Empire, the dominant power in the Middle East and North Africa at the time. In 1818, the Ottomans dispatched a large expeditionary force armed with modern artillery to the western region of Arabia. The Ottoman army besieged Diriyah, which by now had grown into one of the largest cities in the peninsula. Ottoman forces leveled the city with field guns and made it permanently uninhabitable by ruining the wells and uprooting date palms.

The Second Saudi State
By 1824, the Al-Saud family had regained political control of central Arabia. The Saudi ruler Turki bin Abdullah Al-Saud transferred his capital to Riyadh, some 20 miles south of Diriyah, and established the Second Saudi State. During his 11-year rule, Turki succeeded in retaking most of the lands lost to the Ottomans. As he expanded his rule, he took steps to ensure that his people enjoyed rights, and he saw to their well-being.

Under Turki and his son, Faisal, the Second Saudi State enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity, and trade and agriculture flourished. The calm was shattered in 1865 by a renewed Ottoman campaign to extend its Middle Eastern empire into the Arabian Peninsula. Ottoman armies captured parts of the Saudi State, which was ruled at the time by Faisal’s son, Abdulrahman. With the support of the Ottomans, the Al-Rashid family of Hail made a concerted effort to overthrow the Saudi State.

Faced with a much larger and better equipped army, Abdulrahman bin Faisal Al-Saud was forced to abandon his struggle in 1891. He sought refuge with the Bedouin tribes in the vast sand desert of eastern Arabia known as the Rub’ Al-Khali, or ‘Empty Quarter.’ From there, Abdulrahman and his family traveled to Kuwait, where they stayed until 1902. With him was his young son Abdulaziz, who was already making his mark as a natural leader and a fierce warrior for the cause of Islam.

The Modern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
The young Abdulaziz was determined to regain his patrimony from the Al-Rashid family, which had taken over Riyadh and established a governor and garrison there. In 1902, Abdulaziz, – accompanied by only 40 followers – staged a daring night march into Riyadh to retake the city garrison, known as the Masmak Fortress. This legendary event marks the beginning of the formation of the modern Saudi state.

After establishing Riyadh as his headquarters, Abdulaziz captured all of the Hijaz, including Makkah and Madinah, in 1924 to 1925. In the process, he united warring tribes into one nation.

On September 23, 1932, the country was named the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, an Islamic state with Arabic as its national language and the Holy Qur’an as its constitution.

King Abdulaziz (1932-1953)
The legendary King Abdulaziz was a remarkable leader of imagination and vision who set Saudi Arabia on the road to modernization. During his rule, King Abdulaziz started building the country’s infrastructure. He established roads and basic communications systems, introduced modern technology, and improved education, health care and agriculture.

Although King Abdulaziz never traveled beyond the Arab world, he was a highly sophisticated statesman. Foreign leaders and diplomats who met with him came away impressed by his integrity and honesty. He was famous for dispensing with diplomatic niceties in favor of frank and candid discussion. He was just as well known for keeping his promises, whether given to a simple Bedouin or to a world leader. These qualities enhanced his stature as a reliable and responsible leader dedicated to peace and justice.

King Saud (1953-1964)
Abdulaziz’ eldest son Saud acceded to the throne upon his father’s death in 1953. He continued King Abdulaziz’s legacy, creating the Council of Ministers and establishing the Ministries of Health, Education and Commerce. One of King Saud’s greatest successes was the development of education – under his rule many schools were established in the Kingdom, including its first institute of higher education, King Saud University, in 1957.

King Saud also made his mark globally. In 1957, he became the first Saudi monarch to visit the United States. In 1962 he sponsored an international Islamic conference that would become the Muslim World League, headquartered in Makkah.

King Faisal (1964-1975)
King Faisal bin Abdulaziz was a visionary innovator with a great respect for tradition. He initiated the first of a series of economic and social development plans that would transform Saudi Arabia’s infrastructure, especially industry, and set the Kingdom on a path of rapid growth. He also established the first public schools for girls.

In foreign policy, King Faisal showed a firm commitment to the Islamic world. He was a central force behind the establishment in Jeddah in 1971 of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), a group of 56 Islamic countries that promotes Islamic unity and cooperation.

Throughout the turbulent period of the 1960s and 1970s, which included two Arab-Israeli wars and the oil crisis of 1973, King Faisal was a voice for moderation, peace and stability.

King Khalid (1975-1982)
Khalid bin Abdulaziz succeeded King Faisal in 1975. King Khalid also emphasized development, and his reign was marked by an almost explosive growth in the country’s physical infrastructure. It was a period of enormous wealth and prosperity for Saudi Arabia.

On the international stage, King Khalid was a prime mover in forming the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) in 1981, an organization that promotes economic and security cooperation among its six member countries: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia.

King Fahd (1982-2005)
Under King Fahd bin Abdulaziz, who adopted the title Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, Saudi Arabia continued its tremendous socioeconomic development and emerged as a leading political and economic force.

King Fahd was central to Saudi Arabia’s efforts to diversify its economy and promote private enterprise and investment. He restructured the Saudi government and approved the first nationwide municipal elections, which took place in 2005.

One of King Fahd’s greatest accomplishments in Saudi Arabia was a series of projects to expand the Kingdom’s facilities to accommodate the millions of pilgrims who come to the country each year. These projects involved major expansions of Islam’s two holiest sites, the Holy Mosque in Makkah and the Prophet’s Mosque in Madinah, as well as airports and ports.

In the international arena, King Fahd worked actively to resolve regional and global crises. These crises included the Arab-Palestinian conflict, Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait, the Lebanese civil war in addition to conflicts in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kosovo, Chechnya, Afghanistan, Somalia and Kashmir.

As Crown Prince in 1981, he proposed an eight-point plan to resolve the Arab-Israeli conflict and give the Palestinians an independent state. The plan was considered one of the first attempts to find a just and lasting settlement that took into consideration the needs of both the Arabs and Israel. It was unanimously adopted by the Arab League at a summit in Fez, Morocco in 1982.

King Fahd also dedicated years of diplomacy to resolving the civil war in Lebanon. He hosted a meeting of Lebanese members of parliament in Taif, Saudi Arabia in 1989. The meeting resulted in a national reconciliation accord signed in Taif that ended the fighting and opened the way for reconstruction with help from Saudi Arabia and other Arab countries.

Perhaps the greatest international crisis of King Fahd’s rule occurred when Iraq invaded Kuwait on August 2, 1990. The King played a key role in putting together the international coalition that drove Iraqi forces out of Kuwait.

King Fahd was also concerned with humanitarian issues. Under his rule, Saudi Arabia provided emergency humanitarian assistance to numerous countries, including Somalia, Bosnia and Afghanistan, as well as countries suffering from natural disasters, such as earthquakes (Turkey in 1999, Iran in 2003) and the tsunami that struck Southeast Asia in December 2004.

King Abdullah (2005 - 2015)
Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz acceded to the throne after the death of King Fahd on August 1, 2005.

King Abdullah was born in Riyadh in 1924, and received his early education at the royal court. Influenced by his father King Abdulaziz, he developed a profound respect for religion, history and Arab heritage. His years spent living in the desert with Bedouin tribes taught him their values of honor, simplicity, generosity and bravery, and instilled in him the desire to assist in the development of his people.

As Crown Prince, he traveled widely in the Kingdom and inaugurated a number of projects throughout the country. In 2005 he closely monitored the election process for the country’s municipal councils.

The Prince’s first official visit to the United States was in 1976 when he met with President Gerald Ford. Since then, he has made a number of visits to the United States, including his most recent on June 29, 2010 when he met with President Barak Obama at the White House.

His international diplomacy reflects Saudi Arabia’s leadership role in defense of Arab and Islamic issues and for the achievement of world peace, stability and security. Peace in the Middle East and the plight of the Palestinians are of particular concern to King Abdullah. His proposal for a comprehensive Arab-Israeli peace, presented at the Beirut Arab Summit in 2002, has been adopted by the League of Arab States and is known as the Arab Peace Initiative.

King Abdullah has been unwavering in his condemnation of terrorism. At the International Counterterrorism Conference in Riyadh in February, 2005, he called for greater international cooperation to fight this global problem.

King Salman (2015 - )
Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques King Salman bin Abdulaziz acceded to the throne after the death of King Abdullah on January 23, 2015.

King Salman Salman was designated Crown Prince of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and appointed Deputy Prime Minister, by Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz on June 18, 2012, upon the death of Crown Prince Nayef bin Abdulaziz. Crown Prince Salman also served as Minister of Defense.

Since 1956, Prince Salman has chaired various humanitarian and service committees that provide relief from natural and man-made disasters. For his humanitarian services, he has been awarded many medals and decorations, including awards from Bahrain, Bosnia and Herzegovina, France, Morocco, Palestine, the Philippines, Senegal, the United Nations, Yemen, and the King Abdulaziz Medal - First Class.

He is a recipient of several honorary degrees and academic awards, including an honorary doctorate from the Islamic University of Madinah, the Prince Salman academic award, and the Kant Medal by the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities in appreciation of his contributions to the field of science.

During official visits to the United States in April 2012, King Salman met with President Barack Obama and a number of U.S. officials.

List of Rulers of the Islamic World
Sulaiman the Magnificent, Sultan of Turkey (1520–1566)
18.70.8
Portrait of Sultan Ahmet I (r. 1603–17)
44.30
Pen Box (Qalamdan) Depicting Shah Ismail in a Battle against the Uzbeks
2006.523
Shah Abbas, King of Persia, from Effigie naturali dei maggior prencipi et piu valorosi capitani di questa eta con larme loro
57.506
Naser al-Din Shah
1977.683.22
Caliphs and Wazirs
Rashidun Dynasty
A.H. 11–40 / A.D. 632–661
Abu Bakr
A.H. 11–13 / A.D. 632–634
'Umar ibn al-Khattab
A.H. 13–23 / A.D. 634–644
'Uthman ibn 'Affan
A.H. 23–35 / A.D. 644–656
'Ali ibn Abi-Talib
A.H. 35–40 / A.D. 656–661
Umayyad Dynasty
A.H. 41–132 / A.D. 661–750
Mu'awiya I
A.H. 41–60 / A.D. 661–680
Yazid I
A.H. 60–64 / A.D. 680–683
Mu'awiya II
A.H. 64 / A.D. 683–684
Marwan I
A.H. 64–65 / A.D. 684–685
'Abd al-Malik
A.H. 65–86 / A.D. 685–705
al-Walid I
A.H. 86–96 / A.D. 705–715
Sulayman
A.H. 96–99 / A.D. 715–717
'Umar II
A.H. 99–101 / A.D. 717–720
Yazid II
A.H. 101–105 / A.D. 720–724
Hisham
A.H. 105–125 / A.D. 724–743
al-Walid II
A.H. 125–126 / A.D. 743–744
Yazid III
A.H. 126 / A.D. 744
Ibrahim
A.H. 126 / A.D. 744
Marwan II
A.H. 127–132 / A.D. 744–750
'Abbasid Dynasty (Iraq)
A.H. 132–656 / A.D. 750–1258
al-Saffah
A.H. 132–136 / A.D. 749–754
al-Mansur
A.H. 136–158 / A.D. 754–775
al-Mahdi
A.H. 158–169 / A.D. 775–785
al-Hadi
A.H. 169–170 / A.D. 785–786
Harun al-Rashid
A.H. 170–193 / A.D. 786–809
al-Amin
A.H. 193–198 / A.D. 809–813
al-Ma'mun
A.H. 198–218 / A.D. 813–833
al-Mu'tasim
A.H. 218–227 / A.D. 833–842
al-Wathiq
A.H. 227–232 / A.D. 842–847
al-Mutawakkil
A.H. 232–247 / A.D. 847–861
al-Muntasir
A.H. 247–248 / A.D. 861–862
al-Musta'in
A.H. 248–252 / A.D. 862–866
al-Mu'tazz
A.H. 252–255 / A.D. 866–869
al-Muhtadi
A.H. 255–256 / A.D. 869–870
al-Mu'tamid
A.H. 256–279 / A.D. 870–892
al-Mu'tadid
A.H. 279–289 / A.D. 892–902
al-Muktafi
A.H. 289–295 / A.D. 902–908
al-Muqtadir
A.H. 295–320 / A.D. 908–932
al-Qahir
A.H. 320–322 / A.D. 932–934
al-Radi
A.H. 322–329 / A.D. 934–940
al-Muttaqi
A.H. 329–333 / A.D. 940–944
al-Mustakfi
A.H. 333–334 / A.D. 944–946
al-Muti'
A.H. 334–363 / A.D. 946–974
al-Ta'i'
A.H. 363–381 / A.D. 974–991
al-Qadir
A.H. 381–422 / A.D. 991–1031
al-Qa'im
A.H. 422–467 / A.D. 1031–1075
al-Muqtadi
A.H. 467–487 / A.D. 1075–1094
al-Mustazhir
A.H. 487–512 / A.D. 1094–1118
al-Mustarshid
A.H. 512–529 / A.D. 1118–1135
al-Rashid
A.H. 529–530 / A.D. 1135–1136
al-Muqtafi
A.H. 530–555 / A.D. 1136–1160
al-Mustanjid
A.H. 555–566 / A.D. 1160–1170
al-Mustadi'
A.H. 566–575 / A.D. 1170–1180
al-Nasir
A.H. 575–622 / A.D. 1180–1225
al-Zahir
A.H. 622–623 / A.D. 1225–1226
al-Mustansir
A.H. 623–640 / A.D. 1226–1242
al-Musta'sim
A.H. 640–656 / A.D. 1242–1258
Barmakid Dynasty
ca. A.H. 165–221 / A.D. 781–835
Barmak
Khalid
d. A.H. 165 / A.D. 781
Yahya
d. A.H. 190 / A.D. 805
Ja'far
d. A.H. 187 / A.D. 803
al-Fadl
d. A.H. 193 / A.D. 808
Musa
d. A.H. 221 / A.D. 835
'Imran
?
'Abbasid Dynasty (Egypt)
A.H. 659–923 / A.D. 1261–1517
al-Mustansir
A.H. 659 / A.D. 1261
al-Hakim I
A.H. 660–701 / A.D. 1261–1302
al-Mustakfi I
A.H. 701–740 / A.D. 1302–1340
al-Wathiq I
A.H. 740–741 / A.D. 1340–1341
al-Hakim II
A.H. 741–753 / A.D. 1341–1352
al-Mu'tadid I
A.H. 753–763 / A.D. 1352–1362
al-Mutawakkil I (1st reign)
A.H. 763–779 / A.D. 1362–1377
al-Mu'tasim (1st reign)
A.H. 779 / A.D. 1377
al-Mutawakkil I (2nd reign)
A.H. 779–785 / A.D. 1377–1383
al-Wathiq II
A.H. 785–788 / A.D. 1383–1385
al-Mu'tasim (2nd reign)
A.H. 788–791 / A.D. 1385–1389
al-Mutawakkil I (3rd reign)
A.H. 791–808 / A.D. 1389–1406
al-Musta'in
A.H. 808–816 / A.D. 1406–1414
al-Mu'tadid II
A.H. 816–845 / A.D. 1414–1441
al-Mustakfi II
A.H. 845–855 / A.D. 1441–1451
al-Qa'im
A.H. 855–859 / A.D. 1451–1455
al-Mustanjid
A.H. 859–884 / A.D. 1455–1479
al-Mutawakkil II
A.H. 884–903 / A.D. 1479–1497
al-Mustamsik (1st reign)
A.H. 903–914 / A.D. 1497–1508
al-Mutawakkil III (1st reign)
A.H. 914–922 / A.D. 1508–1516
al-Mustamsik (2nd reign)
A.H. 922–923 / A.D. 1516–1517
al-Mutawakkil III (3rd reign)
A.H. 923 / A.D. 1517
Selected early Shi'i rulers
A.H. 35–ca. 264 / A.D. 656–ca. 878
'Ali
d. A.H. 40 / A.D. 661
Hasan
d. ca. A.H. 49 / A.D. 669
Husayn
d. A.H. 61 / A.D. 680
'Ali Zayn al-'Abidin
d. A.H. 94 / A.D. 712
Muhammad al-Baqir
d. A.H. 113 / A.D. 731
Ja'far al-Sadiq
d. A.H. 148 / A.D. 765
Musa al-Kazim
d. A.H. 183 / A.D. 799
'Ali al-Rida
d. A.H. 203 / A.D. 818
Muhammad al-Jawad
d. A.H. 220 / A.D. 835
'Ali al-Hadi
d. A.H. 254 / A.D. 868
Hasan al-'Askari
d. A.H. 260 / A.D. 874
Muhammad al-Mantazar
d. ca. A.H. 264 / A.D. 878
Egypt
Tulunid Dynasty
A.H. 254–292 / A.D. 868–905
Ahmad ibn Tulun
A.H. 254–270 / A.D. 868–884
Khumarawayh
A.H. 270–282 / A.D. 884–896
Jaysh
A.H. 282–283 / A.D. 896
Harun
A.H. 283–292 / A.D. 896–905
Shayban
A.H. 292 / A.D. 905
Ilkhshidid Dynasty
A.H. 323–358 / A.D. 935–969
Muhammad ibn Tughj
A.H. 323–334 / A.D. 935–946
Unujur
A.H. 334–349 / A.D. 946–960
'Ali
A.H. 349–355 / A.D. 960–966
Kafur
A.H. 355–357 / A.D. 966–968
Ahmad
A.H. 357–358 / A.D. 968–969
Fatimid Dynasty
A.H. 297–567 / A.D. 909–1171
'Ubaydullah al-Mahdi
A.H. 297–322 / A.D. 909–934
al-Qa'im
A.H. 322–334 / A.D. 934–946
al-Mansur
A.H. 334–341 / A.D. 946–953
al-Mu'izz
A.H. 341–365 / A.D. 953–975
al-'Aziz
A.H. 365–386 / A.D. 975–996
al-Hakim
A.H. 386–411 / A.D. 996–1021
al-Zahir
A.H. 411–427 / A.D. 1021–1036
al-Mustansir
A.H. 427–487 / A.D. 1036–1094
al-Musta'li
A.H. 487–495 / A.D. 1094–1101
al-Amir
A.H. 495–524 / A.D. 1101–1130
[interregnum]
A.H. 524–525 / A.D. 1130–1131
al-Hafiz
A.H. 525–544 / A.D. 1131–1149
al-Zafir
A.H. 544–549 / A.D. 1149–1154
al-Fa'iz
A.H. 549–555 / A.D. 1154–1160
al-'Adid
A.H. 555–567 / A.D. 1160–1171
Ayyubid Dynasty (Egypt)
A.H. 564–650 / A.D. 1169–1252
Salah al-Din (Saladin)
A.H. 564–589 / A.D. 1169–1193
al-'Aziz
A.H. 589–595 / A.D. 1193–1198
al-Mansur
A.H. 595–596 / A.D. 1198–1200
al-'Adil I
A.H. 596–615 / A.D. 1200–1218
al-Kamil
A.H. 615–635 / A.D. 1218–1238
al-'Adil II
A.H. 635–637 / A.D. 1238–1240
al-Salih Ayyub
A.H. 637–647 / A.D. 1240–1249
Turan Shah
A.H. 647–648 / A.D. 1249–1250
al-Ashraf II
A.H. 648–650 / A.D. 1250–1252
Ayyubid Dynasty (Damascus)
A.H. 582–658 / A.D. 1186–1260
al-Afdal
A.H. 582–92 / A.D. 1186–1196
al-'Adil I
A.H. 592–615 / A.D. 1196–1218
al-Mu'azzam
A.H. 615–24 / A.D. 1218–1227
al-Nasir Salah al-Din Da'ud
A.H. 624–26 / A.D. 1227–1229
al-Ashraf
A.H. 626–34 / A.D. 1229–1237
al-Salih Isma'il (1st reign)
A.H. 634–35 / A.D. 1237–1238
al-Kamil
A.H. 635 / A.D. 1238
al-'Adil II
A.H. 635–36 / A.D. 1238–1239
al-Salih Isma'il Najm al-Din Ayyub (1st reign)
A.H. 636–37 / A.D. 1239
al-Salih Isma'il (2nd reign)
A.H. 637–43 / A.D. 1239–1245
al-Salih Najm al-Din Ayyub (2nd reign)
A.H. 643–47 / A.D. 1245–1249
al-Mu'azzam Turan Shah
A.H. 647–48 / A.D. 1249–1250
al-Nasir Salah al-Din II
A.H. 648–58 / A.D. 1250–1260
Ayyubid Dynasty (Aleppo)
A.H. 579–658 / A.D. 1183–1260
al-'Adil I
A.H. 579–582 / A.D. 1183–1186
al-Zahir Ghiyath al-Din
A.H. 582–613 / A.D. 1186–1216
al-'Aziz Ghiyath al-Din
A.H. 613–634 / A.D. 1216–1237
al-Nasir Salah al-Din II
A.H. 634–658 / A.D. 1237–1260
Ayyubid Dynasty (Mayyafariqin, Sinjar)
A.H. 581–658 / A.D. 1185–1260
Ayyubid Dynasty (Ba'lbakk)
A.H. 568–658 / A.D. 1172–1260
Ayyubid Dynasty (Hama)
A.H. 574–732 / A.D. 1178–1332
Ayyubid Dynasty (Hims)
A.H. 574–661 / A.D. 1178–1272
Ayyubid Dynasty (Yemen)
A.H. 569–626 / A.D. 1174–1229
al-Mu'azzam Shams al-Din Turan Shah
A.H. 569–577 / A.D. 1174–1181
al-'Aziz Zahir al-Din Tughtigin
A.H. 577–593 / A.D. 1181–1197
Mu'izz al-Din Isma'il
A.H. 593–598 / A.D. 1197–1202
al-Nasir Ayyub
A.H. 598–611 / A.D. 1202–1214
al-Muzaffar Sulayman
A.H. 611–612 / A.D. 1214–1215
al-Mas'ud Salah al-Din
A.H. 612–626 / A.D. 1215–1229
Ayyubid Dynasty (Hisn Kayfa and Amid)
A.H. 629–9th c. / A.D. 1232–15th c.
Mamluk Dynasty (Bahri)
A.H. 648–792 / A.D. 1250–1390
Shajar al-Durr
A.H. 648 / A.D. 1250
Aybak
A.H. 648–655 / A.D. 1250–1257
'Ali
A.H. 655–657 / A.D. 1257–1259
Qutuz
A.H. 657–658 / A.D. 1259–1260
Baybars I
A.H. 658–676 / A.D. 1260–1277
Baraka Khan
A.H. 676–678 / A.D. 1277–1280
Salamish
A.H. 678 / A.D. 1280
Qala'un
A.H. 678–689 / A.D. 1280–1290
Khalil
A.H. 689–693 / A.D. 1290–1294
al-Nasir Muhammad (1st reign)
A.H. 693–694 / A.D. 1294–1295
Kitbugha
A.H. 694–696 / A.D. 1295–1297
Lajin
A.H. 696–698 / A.D. 1297–1299
al-Nasir Muhammad (2nd reign)
A.H. 698–708 / A.D. 1299–1309
Baybars II
A.H. 708–709 / A.D. 1309
al-Nasir Muhammad (3rd reign)
A.H. 709–741 / A.D. 1309–1340
Abu Bakr
A.H. 741–742 / A.D. 1340–1341
Kujuk
A.H. 742–743 / A.D. 1341–1342
Ahmad
A.H. 743 / A.D. 1342
Isma'il
A.H. 743–746 / A.D. 1342–1345
Sha'ban I
A.H. 746–747 / A.D. 1345–1346
Hajji I
A.H. 747–748 / A.D. 1346–1347
al-Nasir al-Hasan (1st reign)
A.H. 748–752 / A.D. 1347–1351
Salih
A.H. 752–755 / A.D. 1351–1354
al-Nasir al-Hasan (2nd reign)
A.H. 755–762 / A.D. 1354–1361
al-Mansur Muhammad
A.H. 762–764 / A.D. 1361–1363
Sha'ban II
A.H. 764–778 / A.D. 1363–1376
al-Mansur 'Ali
A.H. 778–783 / A.D. 1376–1382
al-Salih Hajji II
A.H. 783–784 / A.D. 1382
[Barquq]
[A.H. 784–791 / A.D. 1382–1389]
Hajji II (2nd reign)
A.H. 791 / A.D. 1389
Mamluk Dynasty (Circassian [Burji])
A.H. 784–922 / A.D. 1382–1517
Barquq (1st reign)
A.H. 784–791 / A.D. 1382–1389
[Hajji I]
[A.H. 791–792 / A.D. 1389–1390]
Barquq (2nd reign)
A.H. 792–801 / A.D. 1390–1399
F***j (1st reign)
A.H. 801–808 / A.D. 1399–1405
al-Mansur 'Abd al-'Aziz
A.H. 808 / A.D. 1405
F***j (2nd reign)
A.H. 808–815 / A.D. 1405–1412
al-'Adil al-Musta'in
A.H. 815 / A.D. 1412
al-Mu'ayyad Shaykh
A.H. 815–824 / A.D. 1412–1421
al-Muzaffar Ahmad
A.H. 824 / A.D. 1421
Tatar
A.H. 824 / A.D. 1421
al-Salih Muhammad
A.H. 824–825 / A.D. 1421–1422
Barsbay
A.H. 825–841 / A.D. 1422–1437
Yusuf
A.H. 841–842 / A.D. 1437–1438
al-Zahir Jaqmaq
A.H. 842–857 / A.D. 1438–1453
'Uthman
A.H. 857 / A.D. 1453
Inal
A.H. 857–865 / A.D. 1453–1461
al-Mu'ayyad Ahmad
A.H. 865 / A.D. 1461
Khushqadam
A.H. 865–872 / A.D. 1461–1467
Bilbay
A.H. 872 / A.D. 1467–1468
Timurbugha
A.H. 872 / A.D. 1468
al-Ashraf Qayitbay
A.H. 872–901 / A.D. 1468–1496
al-Nasir Muhammad
A.H. 901–903 / A.D. 1496–1498
Qansuh
A.H. 903–905 / A.D. 1498–1500
Janbalat
A.H. 905–906 / A.D. 1500–1501
al-'Adil Tuman Bay
A.H. 906 / A.D. 1501
Qansuh al-Ghawri
A.H. 906–922 / A.D. 1501–1517
al-Ashraf Tuman Bay
A.H. 922 / A.D. 1517
Muhammad 'Ali Dynasty
A.H. 1220–1372 / A.D. 1805–1953
Muhammad 'Ali
A.H. 1220–1264 / A.D. 1805–1848
Ibrahim
A.H. 1264 / A.D. 1848
'Abbas I
A.H. 1264–1270 / A.D. 1848–1854
Sa'id
A.H. 1270–1280 / A.D. 1854–1863
Isma'il
A.H. 1280–1296 / A.D. 1863–1879
Tawfiq
A.H. 1296–1309 / A.D. 1879–1892
'Abbas II Hilmi
A.H. 1309–1333 / A.D. 1892–1914
Husayn Kamil
A.H. 1333–1335 / A.D. 1914–1917
Ahmad Fu'ad I
A.H. 1335–1355 / A.D. 1917–1936
Faruq
A.H. 1355–1371 / A.D. 1936–1952
Fu'ad II
A.H. 1371–1372 / A.D. 1952–1953
Arabian Peninsula
Ziyadid Dynasty
A.H. 204–409 / A.D. 819–1018
Ya'furid Dynasty
A.H. 247–387 / A.D. 861–997
Qaramita Dynasty
A.H. 281–5th century / A.D. 894–11th century
Zuray'id Dynasty
A.H. 476–569 / A.D. 1083–1173
Najahid Dynasty
A.H. 412–551 / A.D. 1021–1156
Mahdid Dynasty
A.H. 554–569 / A.D. 1159–1173
Sulayhid Dynasty (Yemen)
A.H. 439–532 / A.D. 1047–1138
'Ali ibn Muhammad
A.H. 439–459 / A.D. 1047–1067
al-Mukarram Ahmad
A.H. 459–477 / A.D. 1067–1084
al-Mukarram 'Ali
A.H. 477–484 / A.D. 1084–1091
al-Mansur Saba'
A.H. 484–492 / A.D. 1091–1099
al-Sayyida Arwa
A.H. 492–532 / A.D. 1099–1138
Hamdanid Dynasty (San'a')
A.H. 492–569 / A.D. 1098–1173
Ayyubid Dynasty: see above under Egypt, Ayyubid Dynasty (Yemen)
Rasulid Dynasty (Yemen)
A.H. 626–858 / A.D. 1229–1454
al-Mansur 'Umar I
A.H. 626–647 / A.D. 1229–1250
al-Muzaffar Yusuf I
A.H. 647–694 / A.D. 1250–1295
al-Ashraf 'Umar II
A.H. 694–696 / A.D. 1295–1296
al-Mu'ayyad Da'ud
A.H. 696–721 / A.D. 1296–1322
al-Mujahid 'Ali
A.H. 721–764 / A.D. 1322–1363
al-Afdal al-'Abbas
A.H. 764–778 / A.D. 1363–1377
al-Ashraf Isma'il I
A.H. 778–803 / A.D. 1377–1400
al-Nasir Ahmad
A.H. 803–827 / A.D. 1400–1424
al-Mansur 'Abdullah
A.H. 827–830 / A.D. 1424–1427
al-Ashraf Isma'il II
A.H. 830–831 / A.D. 1427–1428
al-Zahir Yahya
A.H. 831–842 / A.D. 1428–1439
al-Ashraf Isma'il III
A.H. 842–845 / A.D. 1439–1442
al-Muzaffar Yusuf II
A.H. 845 / A.D. 1442
Tahirid Dynasty (Yemen)
A.H. 850–923 / A.D. 1446–1517
Rassid Zaydi Imams
A.H. 246–680 / A.D. 860–1281
Qasimid Zaydi Imams
A.H. 1000–1382 / A.D. 1592–1962
al-Qasim al-Mansur
A.H. 1000–1029 / A.D. 1592–1620
Muhammad al-Mu'ayyad I
A.H. 1029–1054 / A.D. 1620–1644
Isma'il al-Mutawakkil
A.H. 1054–1087 / A.D. 1644–1676
Muhammad al-Mu'ayyad II
A.H. 1087–1092 / A.D. 1676–1681
Muhammad al-Hadi
A.H. 1092–1097 / A.D. 1681–1686
Muhammad al-Mahdi
A.H. 1097–1128 / A.D. 1686–1716
al-Qasim al-Mutawakkil
A.H. 1128–1139 / A.D. 1716–1726
al-Husayn al-Mansur (1st reign)
A.H. 1139 / A.D. 1726
Muhammad al-Hadi al-Majid
A.H. 1139–1140 / A.D. 1726–1728
al-Husayn al-Mansur (2nd reign)
A.H. 1140–1160 / A.D. 1728–1747
al-'Abbas al-Mahdi
A.H. 1160–1190 / A.D. 1747–1776
'Ali al-Mansur (1st reign)
A.H. 1190–1221 / A.D. 1776–1806
Ahmad al-Mahdi
A.H. 1221 / A.D. 1806
'Ali al-Mansur (2nd reign)
al-Qasim al-Mahdi
A.H. 1257–1261 / A.D. 1841–1845
Muhammad Yahya
A.H. 1261–1289 / A.D. 1845–1872
[Ottoman occupation]
[A.H. 1289–1308 / A.D. 1872–1890]
Hamid al-Din Yahya
A.H. 1308–1322 / A.D. 1890–1904
Yahya Mahmud al-Mutawakkil
A.H. 1322–1367 / A.D. 1904–1948
Sayf al-Islam Ahmad
A.H. 1367–1382 / A.D. 1948–1962
Muhammad Badr
A.H. 1382 / A.D. 1962
al-Bu-Sa'id Dynasty
A.H. 1154–present / A.D. 1741–present
Rashidid Dynasty
A.H. 1248–1342 / A.D. 1832–1923
al-Sa'ud Dynasty
A.H. 1159–present / A.D. 1746–present
Muhammad ibn Sa'ud
A.H. 1159–1179 / A.D. 1746–1765
'Abd al-'Aziz I
A.H. 1179–1218 / A.D. 1765–1803
Sa'ud ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz
A.H. 1218–1229 / A.D. 1803–1814
'Abdullah ibn Sa'ud
A.H. 1229–1233 / A.D. 1814–1818
[Ottoman occupation]
[A.H. 1233–1238 / A.D. 1818–1822]
Turki
A.H. 1238–1249 / A.D. 1823–1834
Faysal I (1st reign)
A.H. 1249–1253 / A.D. 1834–1837
Khalid ibn Sa'ud
A.H. 1253–1257 / A.D. 1837–1841
'Abdullah II ibn Thunayyan
A.H. 1257–1259 / A.D. 1841–1843
Faysal I (2nd reign)
A.H. 1259–1282 / A.D. 1843–1865
'Abdullah III ibn Faysal (1st reign)
A.H. 1282–1287 / A.D. 1865–1871
Sa'ud ibn Faysal
A.H. 1287–1291 / A.D. 1871–1874
'Abdullah III ibn Faysal (2nd reign)
A.H. 1291–1305 / A.D. 1874–1887
'Abd al-Rahman ibn Faysal (Rashid gov)
A.H. 1305–1308 / A.D. 1887–1891
Rashidi occupation of Riyadh
A.H. 1308–1319 / A.D. 1891–1902
'Abd al-'Aziz II
A.H. 1319–1373 / A.D. 1902–1953
Sa'ud
A.H. 1373–1384 / A.D. 1953–1964
Faysal II
A.H. 1384–1395 / A.D. 1964–1975
Khalid
A.H. 1395–1402 / A.D. 1975–1982
Fahd
A.H. 1402–present / A.D. 1982–present
Iraq and Syria (before the Seljuqs)
Hamdanid Dynasty (Mosul)
A.H. 317–391 / A.D. 927–1000
Nasir al-Dawla al-Hasan
A.H. 317–358 / A.D. 929–969
'Uddat al-Dawla Abu Taghlib
A.H. 358–379 / A.D. 969–989
Ibrahim / al-Husayn (joint rule)
A.H. 379–391 / A.D. 989–1000
Hamdanid Dynasty (Aleppo)
A.H. 333–394 / A.D. 945–1004
Sayf al-Dawla 'Ali I
A.H. 333–356 / A.D. 945–967
Sa'd al-Dawla Sharif I
A.H. 356–381 / A.D. 967–991
Sa'id al-Dawla Sa'id
A.H. 381–392 / A.D. 991–1002
'Ali II
A.H. 392–394 / A.D. 1002–1004
Sharif II
A.H. 394 / A.D. 1004
Mirdasid Dynasty
A.H. 414–472 / A.D. 1023–1079
'Uqaylid Dynasty
A.H. 380–489 / A.D. 990–1096
Marwanid Dynasty
A.H. 372–478 / A.D. 983–1085
Mazyadid Dynasty
A.H. 350–545 / A.D. 961–1150
Inalid Dynasty
A.H. 490–579 / A.D. 1096–1183
Caucasus (before the Seljuqs)
Sajid Dynasty
A.H. 266–318 / A.D. 879–930
Musafirid Dynasty (or Sallarid Dynasty or Kangarid Dynasty)
A.H. 304–483 / A.D. 916–1090
Rawwadid Dynasty
A.H. 4th century–463 / A.D. 10th century–1071
Sharwan Shahs (First Dynasty)
A.H. 183–381 / A.D. 799–991
Sharwan Shahs (Second Dynasty)
A.H. 418–455 / A.D. 1027–1063
Sharwan Shahs (Fourth Dynasty)
A.H. 1180–1236 / A.D. 1766–1821
Shaddadid Dynasty
A.H. 340–571 / A.D. 951–1174
Dabuyid Dynasty
A.H. 40–142 / A.D. 660–760
Bawandid Dynasty (Ka'usiya line)
A.H. 45–466 / A.D. 665–1074
Bawandid Dynasty (Ispahbadiya line)
A.H. 466–606 / A.D. 1074–1210
Bawandid Dynasty (Kinkhwariya line)
A.H. 635–750 / A.D. 1238–1349
Baduspanid Dynasty
A.H. 40–1006 / A.D. 665–1599
Zaydi 'Alid Dynasty (Tabaristan)
A.H. 250–316 / A.D. 864–928
Iran (before the Seljuqs)
Tahirid Dynasty
A.H. 205–259 / A.D. 821–873
Tahir I ibn al-Husayn
A.H. 205–207 / A.D. 821–822
Talha
A.H. 207–213 / A.D. 822–828
'Abdullah
A.H. 213–230 / A.D. 828–845
Tahir II
A.H. 230–248 / A.D. 845–862
Muhammad
A.H. 248–259 / A.D. 862–873
Samanid Dynasty
A.H. 204–395 / A.D. 819–1005
Ahmad I ibn Asad ibn Saman
A.H. 204–250 / A.D. 819–864
Nasr I ibn Ahmad
A.H. 250–279 / A.D. 864–892
Isma'il I ibn Ahmad
A.H. 279–295 / A.D. 892–907
Ahmad II ibn Isma'il
A.H. 295–301 / A.D. 907–914
al-Amir al-Sa'id Nasr II
A.H. 301–331 / A.D. 914–943
al-Amir al-Hamid Nuh I
A.H. 331–343 / A.D. 943–954
al-Amir al-Mu'ayyad 'Abd al-Malik I
A.H. 343–350 / A.D. 954–961
al-Amir al-Sadid Mansur I
A.H. 350–365 / A.D. 961–976
al-Amir al-Rida Nuh II
A.H. 365–387 / A.D. 976–997
Mansur II
A.H. 387–389 / A.D. 997–999
'Abd al-Malik II
A.H. 389–390 / A.D. 999–1000
Isma'il II al-Muntasir
A.H. 390–395 / A.D. 1000–1005
Saffarid Dynasty
A.H. 253–ca. 900 / A.D. 867–ca. 1495
Ya'qub ibn Layth al-Saffar
A.H. 253–265 / A.D. 867–879
'Amr ibn Layth
A.H. 265–288 / A.D. 879–901
Tahir ibn Muhammad ibn 'Amr
A.H. 288–296 / A.D. 901–908
Layth ibn 'Ali
A.H. 296–298 / A.D. 908–910
Muhammad ibn 'Ali
A.H. 298 / A.D. 910
Buyid Dynasty (Iraq)
A.H. 334–447 / A.D. 945–1055
Mu'izz al-Dawla Ahmad
A.H. 334–356 / A.D. 945–967
'Izz al-Dawla Bakhtiyar
A.H. 356–367 / A.D. 967–978
'Adud al-Dawla Fana-Khusraw
A.H. 367–372 / A.D. 978–982
Samsam al-Dawla Marzuban
A.H. 372–376 / A.D. 983–987
Sharaf al-Dawla Shirzil
A.H. 376–379 / A.D. 987–989
Baha' al-Dawla Firuz
A.H. 379–403 / A.D. 989–1012
Sultan al-Dawla
A.H. 403–412 / A.D. 1012–1021
Musharrif al-Dawla
A.H. 412–416 / A.D. 1021–1025
Jalal al-Dawla Shirzil
A.H. 416–435 / A.D. 1025–1044
'Imad al-Din al-Marzuban
A.H. 435–440 / A.D. 1044–1048
al-Malik al-Rahim Khusraw-Firuz
A.H. 440–447 / A.D. 1048–1055
Buyid Dynasty (Fars and Khuzistan)
A.H. 322–454 / A.D. 934–1062
'Imad al-Dawla 'Ali
A.H. 322–338 / A.D. 934–949
'Adud al-Dawla Fana-Khusraw
A.H. 338–372 / A.D. 949–983
Sharaf al-Dawla Shirzil
A.H. 372–380 / A.D. 983–990
Samsam al-Dawla Marzuban
A.H. 380–388 / A.D. 990–998
Baha' al-Dawla Firuz
A.H. 388–403 / A.D. 998–1012
Sultan al-Dawla
A.H. 403–412 / A.D. 1012–1021
Musharrif al-Dawla Hasan
A.H. 412–415 / A.D. 1021–1024
'Imad al-Din Marzuban
A.H. 415–440 / A.D. 1024–1048
al-Malik al-Rahim Khusraw-Firuz
A.H. 440–447 / A.D. 1048–1055
Fulad-Sutun (Fars only)
A.H. 447–454 / A.D. 1055–1062
Buyid Dynasty (Kirman)
A.H. 324–440 / A.D. 936–1048
Mu'izz al-Dawla Ahmad
A.H. 324–338 / A.D. 936–949
'Adud al-Dawla Fana-Khusraw
A.H. 338–372 / A.D. 949–983
Samsam al-Dawla Marzuban
A.H. 372–388 / A.D. 983–998
Baha' al-Dawla Firuz
A.H. 388–403 / A.D. 998–1012
Qawam al-Dawla
A.H. 403–419 / A.D. 1012–1028
'Imad al-Din Marzuban
A.H. 419–440 / A.D. 1028–1048
Buyid Dynasty (Jibal)
A.H. 320–366 / A.D. 932–977
'Imad al-Dawla 'Ali
A.H. 320–335 / A.D. 932–947
Rukn al-Dawla Hasan
A.H. 335–366 / A.D. 947–977
Buyid Dynasty (Hamadan and Isfahan)
A.H. 366–419 / A.D. 977–1028
Mu'ayyid al-Dawla Buya
A.H. 366–373 / A.D. 977–983
Fakhr al-Dawla 'Ali
A.H. 373–387 / A.D. 983–997
Shams al-Dawla
A.H. 387–412 / A.D. 997–1021
Sama' al-Dawla
A.H. 412–ca. 419 / A.D. 1021–ca. 1028
Buyid Dynasty (Rayy)
A.H. 366–420 / A.D. 977–1029
Fakhr al-Dawla 'Ali
A.H. 366–387 / A.D. 977–997
Majd al-Dawla Rustam
A.H. 387–420 / A.D. 997–1029
Buyid Dynasty ('Uman)
A.H. 363–388 / A.D. 974–998
Dulafid Dynasty
A.H. 210–284 / A.D. 825–898
Banijurid Dynasty
A.H. 233–237 / A.D. 848–948
Qarakhanid Dynasty
A.H. 382–607 / A.D. 992–1222
Khwarazmshah Dynasty (Afrighid Dynasty)
A.H. ?–385 / A.D. ?–995
Khwarazmshah Dynasty (Ma'munid Dynasty)
A.H. 385–408 / A.D. 995–1017
Khwarazmshah Dynasty (Governors)
A.H. 408–425 / A.D. 1017–1034
Khwarazmshah Dynasty (Anushtigin Line)
A.H. 470–624 / A.D. 1077–1231
Anushtigin Gharcha'i
A.H. ca. 470–490 / A.D. ca. 1077–1097
[Turkish governor]
[A.H. 490 / A.D. 1097]
Qutb al-Din Muhammad
A.H. 490–521 / A.D. 1097–1127
'Ala' al-Din Atsiz
A.H. 521–551 / A.D. 1127–1156
Il-Arslan
A.H. 551–567 / A.D. 1156–1172
'Ala' al-Din Tekish
A.H. 567 / A.D. 1172
[rival ruler]
[A.H. 567–589 / A.D. 1172–1193]
'Ala' al-Din Muhammad
A.H. 596–617 / A.D. 1200–1220
Jalal al-Din
A.H. 617–628 / A.D. 1220–1231
Ziyarid Dynasty
A.H. 315–483 / A.D. 927–1090
Hasanwayhid Dynasty
A.H. 348–405 / A.D. 959–1014
Ilyasid Dynasty
A.H. 320–357 / A.D. 932–968
Kakuyid Dynasty
A.H. 398–443 / A.D. 1008–1051
Seljuqs and Atabegs
Great Seljuq Dynasty
A.H. 429–552 / A.D. 1037–1157
Rukn al-Dunya wa-I-Din Toghril I (Tughril)
A.H. 429–455 / A.D. 1038–1063
'Adud al-Dawla Alp-Arslan
A.H. 455–465 / A.D. 1063–1072
Jalal al-Dawla Malik Shah I
A.H. 465–485 / A.D. 1072–1092
Nasir al-Din Mahmud I
A.H. 485–487 / A.D. 1092–1094
Rukn al-Din Berk-yaruq (Barkiyaruq)
A.H. 487–498 / A.D. 1094–1105
Mu'izz al-Din Malik Shah II
A.H. 498 / A.D. 1105
Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad I
A.H. 498–511 / A.D. 1105–1118
Mu'izz al-Din Sanjar
A.H. 511–552 / A.D. 1118–1157
Seljuq Dynasty (Iraq)
A.H. 511–590 / A.D. 1117–1194
Seljuq Dynasty (Syria)
A.H. 471–511 / A.D. 1078–1117
Seljuq Dynasty (Kirman)
A.H. 433–583 / A.D. 1041–1187
Seljuq Dynasty (Rum): see below under Asia Minor
Burid Dynasty
A.H. 497–549 / A.D. 1104–1154
Zangid Dynasty (Mosul)
A.H. 521–619 / A.D. 1127–1222
'Imad al-Din Zangi ibn Aq Sonqur
A.H. 521–541 / A.D. 1127–1146
Sayf al-Din Ghazi I
A.H. 541–544 / A.D. 1146–1149
Qutb al-Din Mawdud
A.H. 544–564 / A.D. 1149–1169
Sayf al-Din Ghazi II
A.H. 564–572 / A.D. 1169–1176
'Izz al-Din Mas'ud I
A.H. 572–589 / A.D. 1176–1193
Nur al-Din Arslan Shah I
A.H. 589–607 / A.D. 1193–1211
'Izz al-Din Mas'ud II
A.H. 607–615 / A.D. 1211–1218
Nur al-Din Arslan Shah II
A.H. 615–616 / A.D. 1218–1219
Nasir al-Din Mahmud
A.H. 616–619 / A.D. 1219–1222
Zangid Dynasty (Aleppo)
A.H. 541–577 / A.D. 1146–1181
Nur al-Din Mahmud ibn Zangi
A.H. 541–569 / A.D. 1146–1174
Nur al-Din Isma'il
A.H. 569–577 / A.D. 1174–1181
Zangid Dynasty (Sinjar)
A.H. 566–617 / A.D. 1170–1220
Zangid Dynasty (Jazira)
A.H. 576–648 / A.D. 1180–1250
Begteginid Dynasty
A.H. 539–630 / A.D. 1145–1233
Artugid Dynasty (Hisn Kayfa line)
A.H. 491–629 / A.D. 1098–1232
Artugid Dynasty (Mardin line)
A.H. 497–811 / A.D. 1104–1408
Suqman Shahs
A.H. 493–604 / A.D. 1100–1207
Eldeguzid Dynasty
A.H. 531–622 / A.D. 1136–1225
Salghurid Dynasty
A.H. 543–668 / A.D. 1148–1270
Fadlawayhid Dynasty
A.H. 448–718 / A.D. 1056–1318
Hazaraspid Dynasty
A.H. 550–827 / A.D. 1155–1424
Qutlugh Khans
A.H. 619–706 / A.D. 1222–1306
Asia Minor and Turkey
Seljuq Dynasty (Rum)
A.H. 470–707 / A.D. 1077–1307
Sulayman ibn Qutlumush
A.H. 470–479 / A.D. 1077–1086
[interregnum]
[A.H. 479–485 / A.D. 1086–1092]
Qilich Arslan I
A.H. 485–500 / A.D. 1092–1107
Malik Shah
A.H. 500–510 / A.D. 1107–1116
Rukn al-Din Mas'ud I
A.H. 510–551 / A.D. 1116–1156
'Izz al-Din Qilich Arslan II
A.H. 551–588 / A.D. 1156–1192
Ghiyath al-Din Kay Khusraw I (1st reign)
A.H. 588–592 / A.D. 1192–1196
Rukn al-Din Sulayman II
A.H. 592–600 / A.D. 1196–1204
'Izz al-Din Qilich Arslan III
A.H. 600–601 / A.D. 1204
Ghiyath al-Din Kay Khusraw I (2nd reign)
A.H. 601–607 / A.D. 1204–1210
'Izz al-Din Kay Ka'us I
A.H. 607–616 / A.D. 1210–1219
'Ala' al-Din Kay Qubadh I
A.H. 616–634 / A.D. 1219–1237
Ghiyath al-Din Kay Khusraw II
A.H. 634–644 / A.D. 1237–1246
'Izz al-Din Kay Ka'us II
A.H. 644–646 / A.D. 1246–1248
Kay Ka'us II / Rukn al-Din Qilich Arslan IV (joint rule)
A.H. 646–647 / A.D. 1248–1249
Kay Ka'us II / Qilich Arslan IV / 'Ala' al-Din Kay Qubadh II (joint rule)
A.H. 647–655 / A.D. 1249–1257
Qilich Arslan IV
A.H. 655–663 / A.D. 1257–1265
Ghiyath al-Din Kay Khusraw III
A.H. 663–681 / A.D. 1265–1282
Ghiyath al-Din Mas'ud II (1st reign)
A.H. 681–683 / A.D. 1282–1284
'Ala' al-Din Kay Qubadh III (1st reign)
A.H. 683 / A.D. 1284
Ghiyath al-Din Mas'ud II (2nd reign)
A.H. 683–692 / A.D. 1284–1293
'Ala' al-Din Kay Qubadh III (2nd reign)
A.H. 692–693 / A.D. 1293–1294
Ghiyath al-Din Mas'ud II (3rd reign)
A.H. 693–700 / A.D. 1294–1301
'Ala' al-Din Kay Qubadh III (3rd reign)
A.H. 700–702 / A.D. 1301–1303
Ghiyath al-Din Mas'ud II (4th reign)
A.H. 702–704 / A.D. 1303–1305
'Ala' al-Din Kay Qubadh III (4th reign)
A.H. 704–707 / A.D. 1305–1307
Ghiyath al-Din Mas'ud III
A.H. 707 / A.D. 1307
Menqüchekid Dynasty
A.H. 464–ca. 650 / A.D. 1071–1252
Danishmandid Dynasty
A.H. 464–573 / A.D. 1071–1177
Isfendiyarid Dynasty
A.H. 690–866 / A.D. 1291–1461
Saru Khanid Dynasty
A.H. 700–813 / A.D. 1300–1410
Aydinid Dynasty
A.H. 708–829 / A.D. 1308–1425
Germiyandid Dynasty
A.H. 699–832 / A.D. 1300–1429
Hamidid Dynasty
A.H. 700–826 / A.D. 1239–1423
Menteshadid Dynasty
A.H. 700–829 / A.D. 1300–1426
Eretnaid Dynasty
A.H. 736–782 / A.D. 1335–1380
Ramadanid Dynasty
A.H. 780–819 / A.D. 1378–1416
Dhu-I-Qadrid Dynasty
A.H. 738–928 / A.D. 1337–1552
Karamanid Dynasty
A.H. 654–888 / A.D. 1256–1483
Ottoman Dynasty
A.H. 680–1342 / A.D. 1281–1924
Ertugrul
ca. A.H. 679–680 / A.D. 1280–1281
Osman
A.H. 680–724 / A.D. 1281–1324
Orhan
A.H. 724–761 / A.D. 1324–1360
Murad I
A.H. 761–791 / A.D. 1360–1389
Bayezid I
A.H. 791–805 / A.D. 1389–1403
[interregnum]
[A.H. 805–816 / A.D. 1403–1413]
Mehmet I Chelebi
A.H. 816–824 / A.D. 1413–1421
Murad II (1st reign)
A.H. 824–848 / A.D. 1421–1444
Mehmet II Fatih (1st reign)
A.H. 848–850 / A.D. 1444–1446
Murad II (2nd reign)
A.H. 850–855 / A.D. 1446–1451
Mehmet II Fatih (2nd reign)
A.H. 855–886 / A.D. 1451–1481
Bayezid II
A.H. 886–918 / A.D. 1481–1512
Selim I Yavuz
A.H. 918–926 / A.D. 1512–1520
Süleyman I Kanuni (18.70.8)
A.H. 926–974 / A.D. 1520–1566
Selim II
A.H. 974–982 / A.D. 1566–1574
Murad III
A.H. 982–1003 / A.D. 1575–1595
Mehmet III
A.H. 1003–1012 / A.D. 1595–1603
Ahmed I (44.30)
A.H. 1012–1026 / A.D. 1603–1617
Mustafa I (1st reign)
A.H. 1026–1027 / A.D. 1617–1618
Osman II
A.H. 1027–1031 / A.D. 1618–1622
Mustafa I (2nd reign)
A.H. 1031–1032 / A.D. 1622–1623
Murad IV
A.H. 1032–1049 / A.D. 1623–1640
Ibrahim
A.H. 1049–1058 / A.D. 1640–1648
Mehmet IV
A.H. 1058–1099 / A.D. 1648–1687
Süleyman II
A.H. 1099–1102 / A.D. 1687–1691
Ahmed II
A.H. 1102–1106 / A.D. 1691–1695
Mustafa II
A.H. 1106–1115 / A.D. 1695–1703
Ahmed III
A.H. 1115–1143 / A.D. 1703–1730
Mahmud I
A.H. 1143–1168 / A.D. 1730–1754
Osman III
A.H. 1168–1171 / A.D. 1754–1757
Mustafa III
A.H. 1171–1187 / A.D. 1757–1774
'Abdülhamid I
A.H. 1187–1203 / A.D. 1774–1789
Selim III
A.H. 1203–1222 / A.D. 1789–1807
Mustafa IV
A.H. 1222–1223 / A.D. 1807–1808
Mahmud II
A.H. 1223–1255 / A.D. 1808–1839
'Abdülmecid I
A.H. 1255–1277 / A.D. 1839–1861
'Abdüleziz
A.H. 1277–1293 / A.D. 1861–1876
Murad V
A.H. 1293 / A.D. 1876
'Abdülhamid II
A.H. 1293–1327 / A.D. 1876–1909
Mehmet V Reshad
A.H. 1327–1336 / A.D. 1909–1918
Mehmet VI
A.H. 1336–1341 / A.D. 1918–1922
'Abdülmecid II (caliph only)
A.H. 1341–1342 / A.D. 1922–1924
Kšprülü Wazirs
A.H. 1066–1122 / A.D. 1656–1710
Mehmet Pasha
A.H. 1066–1072 / A.D. 1656–1661
Fazil Ahmed Pasha
A.H. 1072–1087 / A.D. 1661–1676
Kara Mustafa Pasha (by marriage)
A.H. 1087–1095 / A.D. 1676–1683
Fazil Mustafa Pasha
A.H. 1101–1102 / A.D. 1689–1691
Hüseyin Pasha
A.H. 1109–1114 / A.D. 1697–1702
Nu'man Pasha
A.H. 1122 / A.D. 1710
Mongols
Great Mongols
A.H. 603–1043 / A.D. 1206–1634
Ilkhanid Dynasty
A.H. 654–754 / A.D. 1256–1353
Hülegü
A.H. 654–663 / A.D. 1256–1265
Abaqa
A.H. 663–680 / A.D. 1265–1282
Ahmad Tegüder
A.H. 680–683 / A.D. 1282–1284
Arghun
A.H. 683–690 / A.D. 1284–1291
Gaykhatu
A.H. 690–694 / A.D. 1291–1295
Baydu
A.H. 694 / A.D. 1295
Mahmud Ghazan
A.H. 694–703 / A.D. 1295–1304
Muhammad Khudabanda Öljeytü (Uljaytu)
A.H. 703–716 / A.D. 1304–1317
Abu Sa'id
A.H. 716–736 / A.D. 1317–1335
Arpa
A.H. 736–737 / A.D. 1335–1336
Musa
A.H. 737 / A.D. 1336
[rival khans]
A.H. 736–754 / A.D. 1336–1353
Golden Horde
A.H. 621–760 / A.D. 1224–1359
White Horde
A.H. 623–831 / A.D. 1226–1428
Chaghatayid Dynasty
A.H. 624–771 / A.D. 1227–1370
Khans of Kazan
A.H. 841–959 / A.D. 1438–1552
Khans of Kasimof
A.H. 854–1089 / A.D. 1450–1678
Khans of Crimea
A.H. 823–1197 / A.D. 1420–1783
Iran (after the Mongols)
Jalayirid Dynasty
A.H. 736–835 / A.D. 1336–1432
Muzaffarid Dynasty
A.H. 713–795 / A.D. 1314–1393
Injuid Dynasty
A.H. 703–758 / A.D. 1303–1357
Sarbadarid Dynasty
A.H. 758–781 / A.D. 1357–1379
Karts Dynasty
A.H. 643–791 / A.D. 1245–1389
Qara Quyunlu Dynasty
A.H. 782–873 / A.D. 1380–1468
Aq Quyunlu Dynasty
A.H. 780–914 / A.D. 1378–1508
Safavid dynasty
A.H. 907–1145 / A.D. 1501–1732
Isma'il I (2006.523)
A.H. 907–930 / A.D. 1501–1524
Tahmasp I
A.H. 930–984 / A.D. 1524–1576
Isma'il II
A.H. 984–985 / A.D. 1576–1578
Muhammad Khudabanda
A.H. 985–996 / A.D. 1578–1588
'Abbas I (57.506)
A.H. 996–1038 / A.D. 1587–1629
Safi I
A.H. 1038–1052 / A.D. 1629–1642
'Abbas II
A.H. 1052–1077 / A.D. 1642–1666
Sulayman I (Safi II)
A.H. 1077–1105 / A.D. 1666–1694
Husayn I
A.H. 1105–1135 / A.D. 1694–1722
Tahmasp II
A.H. 1135–1145 / A.D. 1722–1732
'Abbas III
A.H. 1145–1163 / A.D. 1732–1749
Sulayman II
A.H. 1163 / A.D. 1749–1750
Isma'il III
A.H. 1163–1166 / A.D. 1750–1753
Husayn II
A.H. 1166–1200 / A.D. 1753–1786
Muhammad
A.H. 1200 / A.D. 1786
Afsharid Dynasty
A.H. 1148–1210 / A.D. 1736–1795
Nadir Shah (Tahmasp Quli Khan)
A.H. 1148–1160 / A.D. 1736–1747
'Adil Shah ('Ali Quli Khan)
A.H. 1160–1161 / A.D. 1747–1748
Ibrahim
A.H. 1161 / A.D. 1748
Shah Rukh (in Khorasan)
A.H. 1161–1210 / A.D. 1748–1795
Zand Dynasty
A.H. 1163–1209 / A.D. 1750–1794
Muhammad Karim Khan
A.H. 1163–1193 / A.D. 1750–1779
Abu-I-Fath / Muhammad 'Ali (joint rulers)
A.H. 1193 / A.D. 1779
Sadiq (in Shiraz)
A.H. 1193–1195 / A.D. 1779–1781
'Ali Murad (in Isfahan)
A.H. 1193–1199 / A.D. 1779–1785
Ja'far
A.H. 1199–1203 / A.D. 1785–1789
Lutf 'Ali
A.H. 1203–1209 / A.D. 1789–1794
Qajar Dynasty
A.H. 1193–1342 / A.D. 1779–1924
Agha Muhammad
A.H. 1193–1212 / A.D. 1779–1797
Fath 'Ali Shah
A.H. 1212–1250 / A.D. 1797–1834
Muhammad
A.H. 1250–1264 / A.D. 1834–1848
Nasir al-Din (1977.683.22)
A.H. 1264–1313 / A.D. 1848–1896
Muzaffar al-Din
A.H. 1313–1324 / A.D. 1896–1907
Muhammad 'Ali
A.H. 1324–1327 / A.D. 1907–1909
Ahmad
A.H. 1327–1342 / A.D. 1909–1924
Transoxiana and Afghanistan
Timurid dynasty
A.H. 771–912 / A.D. 1370–1507
Timur
A.H. 771–807 / A.D. 1370–1405
Khalil
A.H. 807–812 / A.D. 1405–1409
Shah Rukh
A.H. 807–850 / A.D. 1405–1447
Ulugh Beg
A.H. 850–853 / A.D. 1447–1449
'Abd al-Latif
A.H. 853–854 / A.D. 1449–1450
'Abdullah
A.H. 854–855 / A.D. 1450–1451
Abu Sa'id
A.H. 855–873 / A.D. 1451–1469
Ahmad
A.H. 873–899 / A.D. 1469–1494
Mahmud ibn Abi Sa'id
A.H. 899–906 / A.D. 1494–1500
Shaybanid Dynasty
A.H. 905–1007 / A.D. 1500–1598
Janid Dynasty
A.H. 1009–1199 / A.D. 1559–1785
Mangit Dynasty
A.H. 1170–1339 / A.D. 1757–1920
Khans of Khiva
A.H. 921–1290 / A.D. 1515–1872
Ghaznavid Dynasty
A.H. 366–582 / A.D. 977–1186
Nasir al-Dawla Sebüktigin
A.H. 366–387 / A.D. 977–997
Isma'il
A.H. 387–388 / A.D. 997–998
Mahmud
A.H. 388–421 / A.D. 998–1030
Muhammad (1st reign)
A.H. 421 / A.D. 1030–1031
Mas'ud I
A.H. 421–432 / A.D. 1031–1041
Muhammad (2nd reign)
A.H. 432 / A.D. 1041
Shihab al-Dawla Mawdud
A.H. 432–441 / A.D. 1041–1050
Mas'ud II
A.H. 441 / A.D. 1050
'Ali
A.H. 441 / A.D. 1050
'Abd al-Rashid
A.H. 441–444 / A.D. 1050–1053
Qawam al-Dawla Toghril (usurper)
A.H. 444 / A.D. 1053
Farrukhzad
A.H. 444–451 / A.D. 1053–1059
Ibrahim
A.H. 451–492 / A.D. 1059–1099
Mas'ud III
A.H. 492–508 / A.D. 1099–1114
Shirzad
A.H. 508–509 / A.D. 1114–1115
Arslan Shah
A.H. 509–512 / A.D. 1115–1118
Bahram Shah
A.H. 512–547 / A.D. 1118–1152
Khusraw Shah
A.H. 547–555 / A.D. 1152–1160
Khusraw Malik
A.H. 555–582 / A.D. 1160–1186
Ghurid Dynasty
A.H. 390–612 / A.D. 1000–1215