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*Absolutism*

*Government*
Absolute monarchy, in which a monarch rules free of laws or legally organized opposition..
Absolutism (European history), period c. 1610 – c. 1789 in Europe...
Enlightened absolutism, influenced by the Enlightenment (18th- and early 19th-century Europe)
Autocracy, a political theory which argues that one person should hold all power
Tsarist autocracy, is a form of autocracy (later absolute monarchy) specific to Russia

*Philosophy*

General philosophy
Absolutism, the view that facts are absolute rather than merely relative (sometimes called "universality").

*Ethics*

Moral absolutism, the belief in absolute standards against which moral questions can be judged, regardless of context.
Graded absolutism, the view that a moral absolute, such as "Do not kill", can be greater or lesser than another moral absolute, such as "Do not lie".

*Hegelian philosophy*

Absolute (philosophy), the Hegelian concept of an objective and unconditioned reality, said to underlie perceived objects.
Absolute idealism, an ontologically monistic philosophy attributed to G. W. F. Hegel.

*Physics*

Absolute theory, in physics
Absolute space, a theory that space exists absolutely; contrast with relational ism.

*Psychology*

Splitting (psychology), also called black-and-white thinking or all-or-nothing thinking.

انگشت بدنداں تھا تو لہجا سکھا گیا۔
یہ محسن تھا جو بُت سے انساں بنا گیا۔
Happy Birthday to my Dear, Sweet and Loving Sir Muhammad Nasir Alvi

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*JOHN MANDEVILLE*

About the year 1356 there appeared in England an ex-
traordinary book called the Voyage and Travail of Sir John
Maundeville, written in excellent style in the Midland di-
alect, which was then becoming the literary language of
England. For years this interesting work and its unknown
author were subjects of endless dispute; but it is now fairly
certain that this collection of travelers’ tales is simply a
compilation from Odoric, Marco Polo, and various other
sources. The original work was probably in French, which
was speedily translated into Latin, then into English and
other languages; and wherever it appeared it became ex-
tremely popular, its marvelous stories of foreign lands be-
ing exactly suited to the credulous spirit of the age.[103] At
the present time there are said to be three hundred copied
manuscripts of “Mandeville” in various languages,—more,
probably, than of any other work save the gospels. In the
prologue of the English version the author calls himself
John Maundeville and gives an outline of his wide travels
during thirty years; but the name is probably a “blind,”
the prologue more or less spurious, and the real compiler
is still to be discovered.
The modern reader may spend an hour or two very pleasantly in this old wonderland. On its literary side the book
is remarkable, though a translation, as being the first prose
work in modern English having a distinctly literary style
and flavor. Otherwise it is a most interesting commen-
tary on the general culture and credulity of the fourteenth
century..
>>>> *THE END*

*JOHN WYCLIF*
(1324?-1384).

Wyclif, as a man, is by far the most powerful English fig-
ure of the fourteenth century. The immense influence of
his preaching in the native tongue, and the power of his
Lollards to stir the souls of the common folk, are too well
known historically to need repetition. Though a university
man and a profound scholar, he sides with Langland, and
his interests are with the people rather than with the priv-
ileged classes, for whom Chaucer writes. His great work,
which earned him his title of “father of English prose,” is
the translation of the Bible. Wyclif himself translated the
gospels, and much more of the New Testament; the rest was
finished by his followers, especially by Nicholas of Hereford.
These translations were made from the Latin Vulgate, not
from the original Greek and Hebrew, and the whole work
was revised in 1388 by John Purvey, a disciple of Wyclif.
It is impossible to overestimate the influence of this work,
both on our English prose and on the lives of the English
people.
Though Wyclif’s works are now unread, except by occa-
sional scholars, he still occupies a very high place in our literature. His translation of the Bible was slowly copied
all over England, and so fixed a national standard of En-
glish prose to replace the various dialects. Portions of this
translation, in the form of favorite passages from Scrip-
ture, were copied by thousands, and for the first time in
our history a standard of pure English was established in
the homes of the common people.
As a suggestion of the language of that day, we quote a
few familiar sentences from the Sermon on the Mount, as
given in the later version of Wyclif’s Gospel:
And he openyde his mouth, and taughte hem, and seide,
Blessid ben pore men in spirit, for the kyngdom of hevenes
is herne.[91] Blessid ben mylde men, for thei schulen welde[92]
the erthe. Blessid ben thei that mornen, for thei schulen
be coumfortid. Blessid ben thei that hungren and thristen
rightwisnesse,[93] for thei schulen be fulfillid. Blessid ben
merciful men, for thei schulen gete merci. Blessid ben thei
that ben of clene herte, for thei schulen se God. Blessid ben
pesible men, for thei schulen be clepid[94] Goddis children.
Blessid ben thei that suffren persecusioun for rightfulnesse,
for the kyngdom of hevenes is herne.[95] ...
Eftsoone ye han herd, that it was seid to elde men, Thou
schalt not forswere, but thou schalt yelde[96] thin othis to
the Lord. But Y seie[97] to you, that ye swere not for ony
thing;... but be youre worde, yhe, yhe; nay, nay; and that
that is more than these, is of yvel....
Ye han herd that it was seid, Thou schalt love thi neigh-
bore, and hate thin enemye. But Y seie to you, love
ye youre enemyes, do ye wel to hem[98] that hatiden[99]
you, and preye ye for hem that pursuen[100] and sclaun-
dren[101] you; that ye be the sones of youre Fadir that is
in hevenes, that makith his sunne to rise upon goode and
yvele men, and reyneth[102] on just men and unjuste....
Therefore be ye parfit, as youre hevenli Fadir is parfit..
>>>> *THE END*

*WILLIAM LANGLAND* *(1332? ....?)*
*LIFE*
Very little is known of Langland. He was born prob-
ably near Malvern, in Worcestershire, the son of a poor
freeman, and in his early life lived in the fields as a shep-
herd. Later he went to London with his wife and children,
getting a hungry living as clerk in the church. His real life
meanwhile was that of a seer, a prophet after Isaiah’s own
heart, if we may judge by the prophecy which soon found
a voice in Piers Plowman. In 1399, after the success of his
great work, he was possibly writing another poem called
Richard the Redeless, a protest against Richard II; but we
are not certain of the authorship of this poem, which was
left unfinished by the assassination of the king. After 1399
Langland disappears utterly, and the date of his death is
unknown.
*PIERS PLOWMAN.* “The voice of him that crieth in the
wilderness, Prepare ye the way of the Lord,” might well be
written at the beginning of this remarkable poem. Truth,sincerity, a direct and practical appeal to conscience, and
a vision of right triumphant over wrong,—these are the
elements of all prophecy; and it was undoubtedly these
elements in Piers Plowman that produced such an impres-
sion on the people of England. For centuries literature had
been busy in pleasing the upper classes chiefly; but here
at last was a great poem which appealed directly to the
common people, and its success was enormous. The whole
poem is traditionally attributed to Langland; but it is now
known to be the work of several different writers. It first
appeared in 1362 as a poem of eighteen hundred lines, and
this may have been Langland’s work. In the next thirty
years, during the desperate social conditions which led to
Tyler’s Rebellion, it was repeatedly revised and enlarged
by different hands till it reached its final form of about
fifteen thousand lines.
The poem as we read it now is in two distinct parts, the
first containing the vision of Piers, the second a series of
visions called “The Search for Dowel, Dobet, Dobest” (do
well, better, best). The entire poem is in strongly accented,
alliterative lines, something like Beowulf, and its immense
popularity shows that the common people still cherished
this easily memorized form of Saxon poetry. Its tremen-
dous appeal to justice and common honesty, its clarion call
to every man, whether king, priest, noble, or laborer, to do
his Christian duty, takes from it any trace of prejudice or
bigotry with which such works usually abound. Its loyalty
to the Church, while denouncing abuses that had crept into
it in that period, was one of the great influences which led
to the Reformation in England. Its two great principles,
the equality of men before God and the dignity of honest
labor, roused a whole nation of freemen. Altogether it is
one of the world’s great works, partly because of its na-
tional influence, partly because it is the very best picture
we possess of the social life of the fourteenth century:
Briefly, Piers Plowman is an allegory of life. In the first vision, that of the “Field Full of Folk,” the poet lies down on
the Malvern Hills on a May morning, and a vision comes to
him in sleep. On the plain beneath him gather a multitude
of folk, a vast crowd expressing the varied life of the world.
All classes and conditions are there; workingmen are toiling
that others may seize all the first fruits of their labor and
live high on the proceeds; and the genius of the throng
is Lady Bribery, a powerfully drawn figure, expressing the
corrupt social life of the times.
The next visions are those of the Seven Deadly Sins, alle-
gorical figures, but powerful as those of Pilgrim’s Progress,
making the allegories of the Romaunt of the Rose seem like
shadows in comparison. These all came to Piers asking the
way to Truth; but Piers is plowing his half acre and refuses
to leave his work and lead them. He sets them all to hon-
est toil as the best possible remedy for their vices, and
preaches the gospel of work as a preparation for salvation.
Throughout the poem Piers bears strong resemblance to
John Baptist preaching to the crowds in the wilderness.
The later visions are proclamations of the moral and spiri-
tual life of man. The poem grows dramatic in its intensity,
rising to its highest power in Piers’s triumph over Death.
And then the poet wakes from his vision with the sound of
Easter bells ringing in his ears.
Here are a few lines to illustrate the style and language;
but the whole poem must be read if one is to understand
its crude strength and prophetic spirit:

(In a somer sesun, whon softe was the sonne,

I schop[87] me into a shroud, as I a scheep were,
In habite as an heremite, unholy of werkes,

Went wyde in this world, wondres to here.

Bote in a Mayes mornynge, on Malverne hulles,

Me byfel a ferly,[88] of fairie me thoughte.
.... *THE END*.......