International Relations as an Academic Discipline

Topic 3: The Definition and Scope of .
1) Introduction
i. The study of international relations is not a science with which we solve the problems of
international life. At its best it is an objective and systematic approach to those
problems” Palmer and Perkins
ii. The term international was used by Jeromy Bentham in the later 18th century with
regards to laws of nations
iii. A restricted scope of IR: the official relations conducted by the authorized leaders of the
state”
iv. From a broader perspective, IR may refer to all forms of interactions between members
of separate societies, whether govt sponsored or not. Hoffman “IR is concerned with
the factors and activities which affect the external policies and the powers of the basic
units into which the world is divided”
v. The study of IR includes analysis of foreign policies or political processes between
nations, and also focuses on international trade and civil society interaction
2) Ingredients of IR
i. The nature and principal forces of international organizations
ii. The political, social, economic organization of political life, psychological, social, pol
science, economics aspects are considered in order to understand what is happening
iii. elements of national power-political dynamics, every nation is interested in other
country's political conditions
iv. Instruments available for promotion of national interest-how national power is attained
and what is its effect on the international level
v. Limitations and control of national power (china vs US in Taiwan case due to capitalist
vs communism theories (phermosa island)
vi. Foreign policies of major powers and of smaller (strategic) powers-HDI
vii. Historical ingredients as a background for other factors
3) International Politics and International Relations
i. IR is wider in scope than IP
ii. IP focuses on various styles of politics(capitalism vs. communism); politics of violence,
persuasion (japan followed the plan of economic power and left military power),
hierarchical policies and pluralistic politics
iii. IR embraces the totality of relations among people and groups of people in global
society
4) Relevance of International Institutions in IR
i. Contemporary international institutions in which groups of states or other actors can
participate include INGOs or the UN system (UNDP UNICEF)
ii. EU, NATO, SAARC or ASEAN are examples of regional grouping with multiple functions
5) Scope of International Relations
i. Historically, only concerned with the study of diplomatic history.
ii. Later on it was studied under the purview of International Law.
iii. Field of study widened after the creation of League of Nation as study of international
organizations also included.
iv. Post World War II Scenario further widened the scope due to emergence of two super
powers, new states coming into society of nations, danger of thermo-nuclear war, rising
expectations of underdeveloped states.
v. Emphasis on scientific study; study of military policies.
vi. Efforts to utilize the social science techniques (psychological aspects)
vii. Modern scholars not willing to treat IR as an independent discipline as it lacks unity of
subject matter, unanimity regarding scope and degree of objectivity.
viii. IR has a descriptive-historical approach which leads to immense data but a theoretical
framework is required for ordering and interpreting the facts, which new theories are
beginning to provide. Organski “…within next few decades the basic foundations of a
new discipline will be laid”
6) Significance of Study
i. It enables us to understand the basic motives underlying the policies of various states.
ii. Having an insight to the problems facing the world
iii. Helping to understand that narrow nationalism is bane to humanity, poses serious
threats
iv. Various states view problems subjectively and give preference to national interest
v. Traditional concept of national sovereignty has become out-dated and requires
modification
vi. Avoid policy of confrontation and instead focus on peaceful co-existence, policy of cooperation,
and universal brotherhood.
7) Solution through the Core Principles of IR
i. The problem of shared interests versus conflicting interests among members of a group,
we will refer to the general case as the collective goods problem.
ii. Dominance: The principle of dominance solves the collective goods problem by
establishing a power hierarchy in which those at the top control those below.
iii. Reciprocity The principle of reciprocity solves the collective goods problem by
rewarding behavior that contributes to the group and punishing behavior that pursues
self-interest at the expense of the group.
i. Identity: members of an identity community care about the interests of others in that
community enough to sacrifice their own interests to benefit others.

Topic: 2

The Evolution of as a Field of Activity

(The topic encapsulated Introduction of IR, Definitions of different writers, Significance of the study, Scope of IR, Evolution of International Relations as a field of activity (phases: Ancient Greece, The Thirty Years War Followed by the Treaty of Westphalia, Nationalism, Nation-State System and conclusion.)

Note: As a field of activity means from where different nations (states) established relations with one another.

of IR:

i. The study of international relations is not a science with which we solve the problems of international life. At its best it is an objective and systematic approach to those problems” Palmer and Perkins.

ii. The term international was used by Jeremy Bentham in the later 18th century with regards to laws of nations.

iii. A restricted scope of IR: the official relations conducted by the authorized leaders of the state”.

iv. From a broader perspective, IR may refer to all forms of interactions between members of separate societies, whether govt sponsored or not.
Hoffman “IR is concerned with the factors and activities which affect the external policies and the powers of the basic units into which the world is divided”.

v. The study of IR includes analysis of foreign policies or political processes between nations, and also focuses on international trade and civil society interaction

of IR: A restricted definition of IR confines its focus to official relations and excludes relations other than the official from the purview of international relations.
From a broader view, IR may refer to all forms of interactions between members of separate societies, whether government sponsored or not. The study of IR includes analysis of foreign policies or political processes between nations, and also focuses on international trade and civil society interaction.
Scholars however devised their own kinds of definitions depicting the sense in which they take IR.
“International relations are the branch of political science that studies relations between countries of the world." (Encarta).

"It is not only the nations seek to regulate, varied types of groups-nations, states, governments, people, region, alliances, confederations, international organizations, cultural organizations, religious organizations must be dealt with in the study of international relations if the treatment is to be made realistic." (Quincy Wright)

"International relations are concerned with the factors and activities that affect the external policies and the powers of the basic units into that the world is divided." (Hoffman).
"International relations is the discipline that tries to explain political activities across state boundaries (Trevor Tayor).

of Study :

i. It enables us to understand the basic motives underlying the policies of various states.
ii. Having an insight to the problems facing the world.
iii. Helping to understand that narrow nationalism is bane to humanity, poses serious threats.
iv. Various states view problems subjectively and give preference to national interests .
v. Traditional concept of national sovereignty has become out-dated and requires modification.
vi. Avoid policy of confrontation and instead focus on peaceful co-existence, policy of cooperation, and universal brotherhood.

of IR:
The scope of international relations is not yet well settle. It is continuously expending & becoming very complex due to many factors such as LPG (globalization, privatization, & liberalization), advancement in technology (communication, transportation, & media), global issues (Terrorism, poverty, global warming, etc.), so on & so forth. Now, world has become a global village.

of International Relations as a Field of Activity:

As an activity, International relations are as old as the recorded history itself. When looking back to history, it becomes clear that humans are social beings and they cannot live in isolation.
From the day states were formed, those states have built and maintained relationships with external states. Those relationships, at times, have been militant and at other times peaceful.
Before the emergence of the nation states which exists today, the pre-national forms of governments or constitutions which ruled the different parts of the world were personal states, theocracy, oligarchy, city states, territorial empires and trading empires.
With time the nature of relationships which states form with each other has changed based on the form of government, nature of the rulers and their attitudes (Forms of Government.



Greece:
Greece As an activity, one of the earliest examples for international relations among states can be found in ancient Greece. Written evidence has been found that Greek city states have kept relationships between each other.
These relationships have mostly been militant. The ancient Greece was much troubled and influenced by politics.
Although the city states were constantly at war with each other, in many instances they formed alliances in the name of their security to fight and eliminate threats.

Thirty Years War Followed by the Treaty of Westphalia:
Treaty of Westphalia:
Many scholars trace the history of International Relations back to Peace of Westphalia in 1648 which was a stepping stone in the development of the modern state system and the international relations. It was the treaty which ended the thirty years war one of the most destructive wars in the history of Europe.
The war or series of connected wars began in 1618, when the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II tried to impose Roman Catholicism on the Protestants in Bohemia. It set Protestants against Catholics. The war came to involve the major powers of Europe, with Sweden, France, Spain and Austria.
The rulers of the opposing governments, and most importantly the people of Europe, finally grew sick of the horror and demanded the war to end. As a result, more than 179 diplomats representing 194 separate states gathered in Westphalia to discuss peace.
As a result of the agreement followed by the treaty of Westphalia, a system of world order came into being and it is known as the Peace of Westphalia.

:
It was the nationalism that largely contributed to the emergence and the continuation of the nation-states. According to Hough, “Nationalism is a political expression of group identity often coupled with a country or state”. Nationalism led people who share the same ancestry, culture and religion, has same origin and speak same language to claim a separate state for them. It is a patriotic feeling which a group of people have toward their kind.

It was the nationalism that largely contributed to the emergence and the continuation of the nation-states.

-State System:
The Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 created the modern nation-state. The treaty established the principle of internal sovereignty (preeminence of rulers from other claimants to power) and external sovereignty (independence from outside powers).

Nation states formed relations with each other with the intention of realizing their national interests. The process of achieving national interests often led to the break-out of war and then to the study of international relations, as a new world order without wars could be built only through a proper study of international relations.

Up to the period of First World War international relations were popular only as an activity. Ordinary citizens did not have an understanding of relations among states neither they knew what could be achieved or lost by forming relations with external states.
In 1914 with the commencement of First World War, the world order which was established from the peace of Westphalia collapsed. Then, in order to prevent that kind of disastrous wars in future, people started to show an interest in creating a new world order and in international relations.

:
International relations, as an activity has a long history. It was the means which used to interact with other states. It has gone through many changes and advancements and has been developed as an academic discipline today. In a world where the struggle for power created conflicts and wars, an international system to maintain the order of the world and to hold peace was much needed.
However, it was only after the Second World War that the International Relations began to develop largely. Since the Second World War much of International Relations has centered on the search for a new international system to replace the old order that was shattered in two world wars. The emergence of many new states and with the technological changes which were the results of the Second World War, the nature of the International Relations changed.

Topic 1: (IR) as an Academic Discipline

topic covers introduction of IR, Definitions, IR as an academic discipline (what is mean by academic discipline, IR is a distinct discipline or not?) and different phases of IR as an academic discipline and conclusion.

: The word IR as an academic discipline and IR as a field of study used interchangeably, both are the same thing so never to be confused.

of IR:
i. The study of international relations is not a science with which we solve the problems of international life. At its best it is an objective and systematic approach to those problems” Palmer and Perkins

ii. The term international was used by Jeremy Bentham in the later 18th century with regards to laws of nations.

iii. A restricted scope of IR: the official relations conducted by the authorized leaders of the state”.

iv. From a broader perspective, IR may refer to all forms of interactions between members of separate societies, whether govt sponsored or not. Hoffman “IR is concerned with the factors and activities which affect the external policies and the powers of the basic units into which the world is divided”.

v. The study of IR includes analysis of foreign policies or political processes between nations, and also focuses on international trade and civil society interaction

of IR:
A restricted definition of IR confines its focus to official relations and excludes relations other than the official from the purview of international relations.

From a broader view, IR may refer to all forms of interactions between members of separate societies, whether government sponsored or not. The study of IR includes analysis of foreign policies or political processes between nations, and also focuses on international trade and civil society interaction.

Scholars however devised their own kinds of definitions depicting the sense in which they take IR.
“International relations are the branch of political science that studies relations between countries of the world." (Encarta).

"It is not only the nations seek to regulate, varied types of groups-nations, states, governments, people, region, alliances, confederations, international organizations, cultural organizations, religious organizations must be dealt with in the study of international relations if the treatment is to be made realistic." (Quincy Wright)

"International relations are concerned with the factors and activities that affect the external policies and the powers of the basic units into that the world is divided." (Hoffman).
"International relations is the discipline that tries to explain political activities across state boundaries (Trevor Tayor).

as an academic discipline:

What is mean by academic discipline?
Academic discipline is a study or a subject that is formally taught in the universities or in other academic institutions. International Relations can be considered as a distinct academic discipline as it has evolved into a field of study which is formally taught in universities. There has never been a precise agreement amongst scholars regarding the definition of the discipline of International Relations.

is a distinct disciple or not?

Some scholars consider a distinct discipline to be a separate field or study wholly distinct from any other field or study. If this is the case, then International relations cannot be considered a ‘distinct discipline’ because it is a well-known fact that International Relations is not a subject that can be learnt, taught or studied by itself. It is closely linked to many other fields and subjects such as Political Science, History, Sociology, Law, Economics, etc. At least some basic knowledge of these fields is essential if you hope to grasp the multi-dimensional nature of international-relationships, and therefore International Relations can be classified as an “inter-disciplinary” subject.
But on the other hand, if by the words ‘distinct discipline’ is meant a disciplined study of a particular field, with a recognizable focus of interest and body of theory, then International Relations is, and always has been a ‘distinct discipline’, a discipline that has tended to evolve with the times.

to the Webster Online Dictionary an academic discipline is “a branch of knowledge that is formally taught, either at the university, or via some other such method. Therefore International Relations would fall into the category of a distinct academic discipline as it has evolved into being a field of study which is formally taught in many Universities and professional institutions.”

of IR as an academic discipline:

The development of International Relations as an academic discipline can be divided into few phases such as the Prenatal, Organizational, Cold War and Scientific Phases.
Kenneth Thompson has summed it up in the following stages,

1. The first stage –up to the end of the World war I (1919) IR was taught by diplomatic historians who were more interested in history than in politics, their main concern was the description of past events rather than the analysis of present ones.

2. The second stage starting after the end of World War I stressed only on the study of current affairs. This was a reaction to the excessive concentration on the past done during the first stage.

3. The third stage –was during the inter-war years (1919-1939) also known as the 20 year crisis period. Scholars during this time tended to take a more moralistic and legalistic approach towards studying IR. More emphasis was laid on the importance of international Law and International Organizations. Especially the League of Nations which was formed during this time, with the hope of narrowing nationalism by internationalism. The Idealist approach became popular during this time.

4. The fourth stage –was the period following the World War II (1945) During this era people had lost faith in the power and authority of international organizations and international law as a tool of maintaining peace; because of the failure of the League of Nations (its failure to prevent yet another world war). Therefore the emphasis of this period shifted towards a scientific analysis of the developments of international politics. Scientific studies were conducted on what causes war, how to avoid war, what influences the behavior of states, etc.

5. The fifth stage could be described as cold war phase (1945-1989) there was no complete war or peace during this time; hence it was described as the Cold war period. One of the main characteristics of this era was the intense rivalry between USA and USSR by way of bloc politics. What was most essential during this time was a Balance of Power.

6. The sixth stage is the post-cold war era which scholars used to try and establish what the cold war was all about, why it took place and what it was aimed at and what it ultimately achieved.

:
Today, International Relations have become a very popular and an important field as people in the 21st century is connected to the international world like in no other time. The majority of things happen in the international world affect people’s lives directly or indirectly no matter which part of the world they are. International terrorism, globalization, communication and technological development affect the human race and these things cannot be controlled by one nation. Therefore, the importance of International Relations has rapidly increased because it is only through International Relations that the world peace can be maintained. In conclusion, with the growing importance of International Relations, it has undoubtedly developed into an academic discipline from being a mere field.

IR is born from the ashes of war!

Elaborate the above statement in your opinions.

The Russian Revolution of 1917 was a significant and complex event that led to the overthrow of the Russian monarchy and the establishment of the first communist state in the world. There were multiple factors that contributed to the revolution, and here are some of the key causes:

1. Socioeconomic Inequality: Russia at the time was characterized by extreme social and economic inequality. The majority of the population, particularly the peasants and industrial workers, lived in poverty and faced harsh working conditions. Meanwhile, a small elite, including the nobility and industrial capitalists, controlled most of the wealth and power. This stark inequality created widespread discontent among the masses.

2. Autocratic Rule: Russia was ruled by an autocratic monarchy under Tsar Nicholas II. The tsar's rule was characterized by absolute power and limited political freedoms. Political opposition was suppressed, and the government was seen as unresponsive to the needs of the people. Dissatisfaction with the autocracy and demands for political reforms grew among various segments of society.

3. World War I: Russia's involvement in World War I further exacerbated existing social and economic problems. The war placed a heavy burden on the country's resources, leading to food shortages, inflation, and a collapse of the economy. The Russian military suffered significant losses, and the government's mismanagement of the war effort led to a loss of confidence in the ruling regime.

4. Military and Worker Discontent: The hardships faced by the Russian military and industrial workers during the war contributed to their growing discontent. Soldiers experienced high casualties, inadequate supplies, and poor leadership. Industrial workers faced long working hours, low wages, and poor living conditions. These groups became hotbeds of revolutionary activity and played a crucial role in the events leading up to the revolution.

5. Political Opposition: Various political groups, including socialists, liberals, and radical revolutionaries, actively campaigned for political change and the overthrow of the tsarist regime. These groups organized strikes, protests, and underground activities to challenge the government. The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, emerged as a prominent revolutionary party during this period.

6. February Revolution: The revolution was sparked by a series of strikes and protests in Petrograd (now St. Petersburg) in February 1917. These demonstrations were initially driven by bread shortages and deteriorating living conditions. However, they quickly turned into a broader revolt against the tsarist regime, with soldiers and workers joining the protests. The February Revolution resulted in the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the establishment of a provisional government.

These causes, along with other contributing factors, created a volatile environment in Russia, ultimately leading to the Russian Revolution. The revolution went through several stages, including the October Revolution of 1917, which brought the Bolsheviks to power and led to the establishment of the Soviet Union.

: Causes of France revolution

The French Revolution was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France that lasted from 1789 to 1799. There were several factors that contributed to the outbreak of the revolution, including:

Economic crisis: France was facing a severe economic crisis due to the country's debt, which was largely incurred as a result of its involvement in wars and lavish spending by the monarchy.

Social inequality: France was a highly stratified society, with the clergy and the nobility enjoying privileged status and exemption from taxes, while the majority of the population, consisting of peasants and urban workers, were burdened with heavy taxes and faced dire living conditions.

Enlightenment ideas: The ideas of the Enlightenment, which emphasized individual rights and freedoms, as well as the principles of democracy and equality, had a significant impact on French society and helped to fuel demands for political reform.

Political corruption: The French government was highly centralized and was perceived as corrupt, with many officials and politicians accused of embezzlement and other forms of corruption.

Poor leadership: The monarchy was widely criticized for its weak leadership and inability to address the country's problems.

Influence of the American Revolution: The success of the American Revolution in achieving independence from Britain inspired many French intellectuals and revolutionaries to seek similar freedoms and rights for themselves.

These factors, among others, contributed to the growing unrest and discontent that eventually led to the French Revolution.

Over the past few decades, Artificial Intelligence (AI) has rapidly developed, improving the quality and efficiency of many industries. However, not all AI products have a positive impact on society. Sometimes technologies are created that are later abused by criminals. An example of such technology is known as Deepfake.
Deepfakes are digital media – video, audio, and images edited and manipulated using Artificial Intelligence (AI) to inflict harm on individuals and institutions.
Deepfake can depict a person as indulging in antisocial behaviours and can create social discord, increase polarization, and can even influence the election outcome· Deepfakes can accelerate the trust deficit in traditional media and could be used by nation-state actors to create chaos in the target country, undermining trust in institutions and Misuse by non-state actors (terrorist organisations), to stir anti-state sentiments among people.

The threat of the liar's dividend – an undesirable truth is dismissed as deepfake or fake news, giving more credibility to denials.
Weaponisation of deepfakes, use of fake news and alternative-facts narrative to dismiss an actual piece of media and truth.

How can it harm Pakistan?
While there isn't any evidence of it being used in any large-scale scandal in Pakistan, the technology is primarily used to blackmail women by substituting faces. The goal is to create a zero-trust society, where people cannot distinguish truth from falsehood or no longer bother to. And when trust is eroded, it is easier to raise doubts about specific events. Many terrorist groups operating from India or Afghanistan like to conduct propaganda within Pakistan, especially in the restive province of Baluchistan. For example, the pictures of Baluch people found dead in the desert went viral on Twitter. A particular group blamed Pakistan's security forces for the killings and used it for political gains. But after investigation, it turned out to be a case of human trafficking.

International Relations as an Academic Discipline