Criminology Reviewer Ngani

📌JUVENILE DELINQUENCY TERMS

Family Home – Constituted jointly by the husband and the wife or by unmarried head of a family, is the dwelling house where they and their family reside and the land on which it is situated.

Hedonism – Pleasure, highest goal of man's life.

Hedonistic Calculus – Process of weighing pleasure and pain.

Idea Of Determination – Any act committed awaits an explanation to the natural world.

Jeremy Bentham – Introduced punishment of imprisonment.

JJS – Juvenile Justice System

Juvenile – person/Minors/Youth whose mental and emotional faculty has not been fully developed.

Juvenile Delinquent – Person commits any act of delinquency.

Juvenile Diversion – Offender is removed from JJS and diverted to other government programs.

Labelling Theory -
Internationalist Perspective – any youth who commits a crime should be left alone
Social Perspective

Neglected Child – is one whose basic needs have been deliberately unattended or inadequately attended.

Neo-Classical Theory – Modified the classical theory, excepted the child and lunatics from punishment.

Parental Authority/Partia Potestos – Rights and obligations which parents have in relation to the persons and property of their children until their emancipation and even after this under certain circumstances.

PD 603 – Child and Youth Welfare Code – Approval – Dec.10,1974

Effectivity – June 10,1975

Police – Prime mover of JJS
- Backbone of CJS

Poverty – Means the condition of that group whose income is low, therefore, the standard of living is not enough to maintain normal health and efficiency.

Some Causes of Poverty Which Could Be One Of The Causes Of Crime
Physical Environment
Unfavorable Economic Condition
Social Environment
Defects in Government
Defects in Education

Proponent of Classical Theory
Jeremy Bentham
Cesare Beccaria

Proponents Of Positivist/Italian Theory
Cesare Lombroso
Enrico ferri
Rafael Garofalo

RA 6809 – 18 years old - age of majority.

RA 8669 – Law which created the family court.

Truancy – Frequent Absences

Types Of Delinquents
Occasional Delinquent
The Gang Delinquent
Mal Adjusted delinquent

Welfare Model – Is the positivistic approach which holds that young offenders should be helped rather than punished.

William Bonger – Social Conflict Theory – society is composed of the ruling class and the ruled class.

Young Offenders Fall Into Two Categories
Juveniles
Young Adults – at least 17

Youthful Offender – below 18 years old.
- Is one who is over 9 years but under 18 years of age at the time of the commission of the offense.

Zones Of Peace – Children trapped in an armed conflict based on RA 7610.

Recent Laws During Duterte Administration:

1. Proclamation No. 124 – January as “National Bible Month”
2. Executive Order No. 25-renamed Benham Rise to Philippine Rise.
3. Executive Order No. 26- ordered a nationwide smoking BAN. Implemented in July 23
4. Republic Act No. 10913 - Anti-Distracted Driving Act
5. Republic Act No. 10666, or the "Children on Motorcycle Safety Act of 2015",
6. Republic Act No. 10931 Free tuition in state universities
7. R.A. 10932 No Enhanced Anti-Hospital Deposit Law
8. R,A 10928 Extending Passport Validity to 10 years
9. 10929 Establishing FREE INTERNET ACCESS in public places
10. 10930 Extending Driver’s License Validity for Five Years
11. Ra 8049 Anti Hazing Law
12. Republic Act No. 10969 or the Free Irrigation Service Act
13. RA 10742- SK REFORM
14. RA 10963 Tax Reform for Acceleration and Inclusion Act (TRAIN) Law

Important Events:

1. Japanese Encephalitis - a mosquito-borne illness endemic to the Philippines
2. Avian Influenza Outbreak- declared in Pampanga
3. Philippines ranked 6th in the 29th sea games. (Malaysia: host country)
-24golds,33 silvers,64 bronze won by the Philippines in the 29thseagames
4. 6.4 bilyon shipment of drugs from china, nakalusot Sa Customs under Sec. Nicanor Faeldon
5. 2019- Philippines will host SEA Games
6. November 10–12 – The Philippines hosted the 31st ASEAN Summit Clark Freeport Zone in Angeles, Pampanga.[32]
7. November 13–14 – The hosted the Twelfth East Asia Summit at the Clark Freeport Zone in Angeles, Pampanga.[87]
8. December 19 — President Rodrigo Duterte signed the Tax Reform for Acceleration and Inclusion Act (TRAIN) Act January 1, 2018 took effect- Tax Reform for Acceleration and Inclusion Act (TRAIN)
is a legislation which made reforms on taxation in the Philippines.

9. Isnilon Hapilon of Abu Sayyaf and Omar Maute of Maute Group, leaders of ISIL-linked militants fighting the government in the Battle of Marawi were reportedly killed on October 16

10. October 23 – the Battle of Marawi was declared officially over by the military
MARTIAL LAW- MAY 23- DEC. 31
11. January 22 – The Mayon Volcano’s alert status was raised to Alert Level 4 due to intensified volcanic activities.
12. The Office of the President has ordered a 90-day preventive suspension order against Overall Deputy Ombudsman Melchor Arthur Carandang for alleged grave misconduct and grave dishonesty for the unauthorized disclosures of the alleged bank transactions of President Rodrigo Duterte and his family.
13. February 28 – President Rodrigo Duterte signed the Paris Agreement on Climate Change
14. May 23, 2017 – Martial Law was declared on the islands of Mindanao –
15. Dec 31. 2017 –expiration of validity of the martial law
16. July 2, 2017- Pacquiao’s Fight against Jeff Horn
17. July 24, 2017 – 2nd SONA of Duterte
18. August 8, 2017 - Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Celebrates 50th Golden Anniversary Celebration in PICC.
19. Sept 21- Proclamation No. 319 Duterte declared “National Day of Protest”
September- National Peace Consciousness Month
20. January 31: A total lunar eclipse coinciding with a super moon and blue moon phenomenon was witnessed by many astronomers and skywatchers throughout the country.[8
21. DengVaxia scandal vs aquino and butch abad
22. 29th of March 1969.- 49th anniversary of New People’s Army. (NPA)
23. Sept 21, 2017- National Day of Protest
24. . February 12: -The Philippine Government has signed the administrative order to completely ban the deployment of all workers to Kuwait.
25. . March 1 – President Rodrigo Duterte has signed Republic Act No. 10973, that restored the power of select officials of the Philippine National Police (PNP) to issue subpoenas on cases under investigation.
26. March 14 – President Rodrigo Duterte has announced that the Philippines is withdrawing from the International Criminal Court (ICC)

IMPORTANT NAMES:
1. MARIA LOURDES SERENO – On March 8, through Votes of 38-2, the House Committee on Justice has found probable cause in the impeachment complaint against Chief Justice Maria Lourdes Sereno.
2. HORACIO "ATIO" CASTILLO III – Killed by Aegis Juris fraternity over the fatal hazing of University of Santo Tomas (UST) law freshman student in September last year.
3. BONGBONG” MARCOS, JR. AGAINST VICE PRESIDENT LENI ROBREDO. The Supreme Court (SC), sitting as the Presidential Electoral Tribunal (PET) has for the election protest of former Senator Ferdinand “Bongbong” Marcos, Jr (counting started on Apr. 2 for Camarines Sur, Iloilo, and Negros Oriental)
4. KERWIN ESPINOSA, PETER LIM- The Department of Justice has cleared alleged drug lords due to lack of evidence

5. MAUTE GROUP – rebel group who seized Marawi City, they are not ISIS, but only ISIS-affiliated
6. OMAR MAUTE leader of maute inspired by Isis in Marawi City
7. REYNALDO PAROJINOG SR. – Mayor who was killed in the drug ops in Ozamiz City.
8. NOVA PAROJINOG- her daughter
9. KIAN LOYD DELOS SANTOS - A 17-year-old who was kill

1. If the smallest caliber of a gun is 22 caliber, what is the biggest caliber (May 2008 Criminologist Licensure Examination)

A. Caliber 60
B. Caliber 45
C. Caliber 50 *
D. Caliber 40

2. It refers to a projectile propelled from a firearm by means of expensive force of gasses coming from burning gun powder. (May 2008 Criminologist Licensure Examination)

A. Cartridge
B. Bullet *
C. Gun powder
D. Printer

3. It refers to a point on the ridge formation location at the center as heart of the pattern. (May 2008 Criminologist Licensure Examination)

A. Delter
B. Core *
C. Radial loop
D. Ulinar loop

4. It refers to a complete unfired unit consisting of bullet, cartridge case propellant powder and primary. (May 2008 Criminologist Licensure Examination)

A. Ammunition*
B. Bullet
C. Primer
D. Segment


5. What is the symbol of center pocket loop whorl? (May 2008 Criminologist Licensure Examination)

A. c*
B. d
C. x
D. w

6. Can latent footprints be seen by naked eye? (May 2008 Criminologist Licensure Examination)

A. No*
B. Yes, at all times
C. Yes but not at all times
D. Once in a while

7. One is considered “dead drunk” if the level of alcohol in his body is approximately: (May 2008 Criminologist Licensure Examination)

A. 0.5%*
B.0.3%
C. 0.02%
D. 0.1%

8. What is the chemical or solution used for macro etching? (May 2008 Criminologist Licensure Examination)

A. Cuprichydrocloric*
B. Amino solution
C. Lysergic acid
D. Sulfuric acid

9. In typewriting probe the condition of a type face printing heavier on one side is: (May 2008 Criminologist Licensure Examination)

A. Irregular print*
C. Off its fact
B. Guided face print
D. None of these

POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY



A. DEFINITION OF TERMS:

1. Photography = Derived from the Greek word “Phos” or “Photos” which means “light” and “Grapho” means “Writing” or “Graphia” meaning “to Draw”. Sir John F. W. Herschel coined the word photography when he first wrote a letter to Henry Fox Talbot.

= Is the art and science of reproducing image by means of light through some sensitized material with the aid of a camera, Lens and its accessories and the chemical process required in order to produced a photograph.



2. Forensic = Derived from the Latin word “Forum” which means “a market place” where people gathered for public discussion.

= When used in conjunction with other science it connotes a relationship to the administration of justice. It is sometimes used interchangeably with the word legal.



3. Police Photography = Is the application of the principles of photography is relation to the police work and in the administration of justice.



4. Photograph = Is the mechanical and chemical result of Photography. Picture and photograph are not the same for a picture is a generic term is refers to all kinds of formed image while a photograph is an image that can only be a product of photography.



B. USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

1. Personal Identification

= Personal Identification is considered to be the first application of photography is police work. Alphonse Bertillion was the first police who utilized photography in police work as a supplementary identification in his Anthropometry system.

2. For Communication

= Photograph is considered to be one of the most universal methods of communication considering that no other language can be known universally than photograph.

3. For Record Purposes

= Considered to be the utmost used of photography in police work.

Different Views in photographing

a. General View

= taking an over-all view of the scene of the crime. It shows direction and location of the crime scene.

b. Medium View

= Is the taking of the photograph of the scene of the crime by dividing it into section. This view will best view the nature of the crime.

c. Close-up View

= Is the taking of individual photograph of the evidence at the scene of the crime. It is design to show the details of the crime.

d. Extreme Close-up View

= Commonly designed in laboratory photographing using some magnification such as Photomacrography and photomicrography.



4. For Preservation

= Crime scene and other physical evidence requires photograph for preservation purposes. Crime scene cannot be retain as is for a long period of time but through photograph the initial condition of the scene of the crime can be preserved properly.







5. For Discovering and Proving

= Photography can extend human vision in discovering and proving things such as:

a. The use of Magnification

Photomicrography = Taking a magnified photograph of small object through attaching a camera to the ocular of a compound microscope so as to show a minute details of the physical evidence.

Photomacrogaphy = Taking a magnified (enlarged) photograph of small object by attaching an extended tube lens (macro lens) to the camera.

Microphotography = is the process of reducing into a small strips of film a scenario. It is first used in filmmaking.

Macrophotography = used synonymously with photomacrogaphy.

Telephotography = Is the process of taking photograph of a far object with the aid of a long focus and Telephoto lens.



b. Used of Artificial Light such as X-ray, Ultra-violet and Infra-red rays to show something which may not be visible with the aid of human eye alone.



6. For Court Exhibits

= Almost all evidence presented in court before formally be accepted requires that they satisfy the basic requirements for admissibility which is relevancy and competency. A question of relevancy is usually proved by proving the origin of the evidence and its relation to the case and this is usually supplemented by photograph of the evidence giving reference as to where it came from.

Evidence presented in court once accepted became known as Exhibit. Either Exhibit 1,2,3 etc. for the defense or Exhibit A, B, C etc for the prosecution.



7. Crime Prevention
= with the used of video camera (hidden camera) and other advanced photographic equipment crimes are being detected more easily and even to the extent of preventing them from initially occurring.



8. Police Training

= Modern facilities are now being used as instructional material not only in police training as well as in other agencies.



9. Reproducing and Copying

= With the use of photography any number of reproduction of the evidence can be made those giving unlimited opportunity for its examination and even allow other experts or person to examine the specimen without compromising the original.



C. ESSENTIALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY

1. Light = is an electromagnetic energy that travels in a form of a wave with the speed of 186, 000 miles per second.

2. Camera = a light tight box designed to block unwanted or unnecessary light from reaching the sensitized material.

3. Lens = is the light gathering mechanism of the camera that collect the reflected light coming from the object to form the image.

4. Sensitized material = composed of a highly sensitized chemical compound which is capable of being transformed into an image through the action of light and with some chemical processes. ( Film and Photo Paper).

5. Chemical Process = is the process necessary for reducing silver halides into a form so as a latent image and a positive image be made resulting to what we called Photograph.



D. THEORIES OF LIGHT

1. The WAVE Theory (Huygens)

= It is the theory that was transcribed from the motion of the water that if we observe a piece of log floating in the ocean and with the force of the air would naturally will make the log move up and down.

2. Corpuscular theory (Newton)

= this later opposed the wave theory stating that light has its effect by the motion of very small particles such as electrons.

3. Modified Wave theory (Maxwell and hertz)

= Based on electromagnetics.

All these theories are still considered to be of little lacking that law enforcement need not to be very focus on this but rather go along with the accepted conclusion that light is a form of energy, which is electromagnetic in form.



E. LIGHT: ITS NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS, SOURCES AND CLASSIFICATION

Light is defined as an electromagnetic energy with the speed of 186,00 miles per second. Its wave travel is said to be characterized in certain extent based on velocity, wavelength and frequency of the number of vibration of the wave per second.

Light wavelength is the distance measured between two (2) successive crest or through of wave and it is expressed in either Millimicron (nanometer) or Angstrom. Millimicron is the units of light wavelength which is equivalent to one-millionth part of a millimeter which the Angstrom is relatively smaller for it has an equivalent measurement of ten (10) millionth part of a millimeter.

Once light hits a certain medium, its action can be characterized as either: Reflected, Transmitted or Absorbed (RAT). Reflected once the light hits a mirror and it bounce back. Transmitted when the light hits a transparent glass which would allow the light to pass through its medium and Absorbed when the light hits a dark colored object and prevents it from either bouncing or passing through.

Isaac Newton in 1666 proved that the light which men see as white light is actually a mixture of all colors of the spectrum. This is produced when we allow light to hit a glass prism (Sharp Edge of the Glass). A rainbow array will then be shown with colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet colors (from top to bottom). The visible light is also said of have a wavelength of between 400-700 millimicron or nanometer.



1. Types of Light

Lights can largely be classified into visible and invisible light.

a. Visible Light

= Is the type of light that produces different sensation when reach the human eye. It is the type of light, which is capable of exciting the retina of the human eye.

b. Invisible Light

= lights in which their wavelength are either too short or too long to excite the retina of the human eye i.e. X-ray, Ultrat-violet and Infra-red lights.



2. Photographic Rays

a. X-ray

=Light with the wavelength between .01 to 30 millimicrons. It is produced by passing an electric current through a special type of vacuum tube. It was incidentally discovered by Conrad Welhelm Roentgen. This type of light works in the principle of shadow photography.



b. Ultra-violet ray (Before the violet)

= Radiation having a wavelength of 30 to 400 nanometers designed to photograph fingerprints in multi colored background, documents that are altered, decipherment of erase writing and developing invisible writing. It is commercially known as “black Light”.



c. Visible Light

= It refers to the type of radiation having a wavelength of 400 to 700 millimicrons designed for ordinary photographing purposes.



d. Infra-red (Beyond the Red)

= Considered as the photographic rays with the longest wavelength ranging from 700 to 1000 millimicrons. It is designed to take photograph of over-written documents, obliterated writing, and charred documents or for black out photography. It is sometimes referred to as heat rays).

3. Light Source

A. Natural Light= are those light which come to existence without the intervention of man e.i. Sunlight, moonlight and starlight.

1. Bright Sunlight

= object in an open space casts a deep and uniform shadow and the object appears glossy.

2. Hazy Sunlight

= object in an open space casts a transparent or bluish shadow. This is due to thin clouds that cover the sun.

3. Dull Sunlight

= object in an open space cast no shadow due to thick clouds covering the sun.



Daylight may still be classified as: open space bright sunlight, under shade bright sunlight, hazy sunlight, cloudy sunlight and cloudy dull sunlight.

These conditions and their colors affect the appearance of the object being photograph. Factors such as atmospheric v***r, atmospheric dust and quality of the reflected light coming and not coming from the source should likewise be considered.



B. Artificial Light = otherwise known as man-made light e.g. fluorescent bulb, incandescent bulb and photoflood lamp.



1. Continuous radiation

Photoflood lamp= is likewise known as Reflectorized light or Spot light. It is a light with a reflector at the back which focus the light to the object the common wattages of this lamp is 500 watts.



Flourescent Lamp = are tube lamps in which the walls are coated with fluorescent powders with both ends is mounted with a holder that serves as the reflector. This is commonly used by everybody more than it is used in photographing.



Incandescent bulb = are bulb with a wire filament connecting two wires which sustain the electrical charge that produces the light. Everybody likewise commonly uses this although it is more expensive in terms of electrical consumptions.



Infra-red Lamp

Ultra-violet Lamp



2. Short Duration type

Flash bulb = are chemical lamps, as it generate lights by the rapid combination of metal in oxygen. The bulb can be used only once as the bulb is busted when fired electrically. There are thin filaments inside the bulb with two electrical contacts. When the current flows through the filament, it becomes incandescent and ignites the explosive primer that ignites the aluminum foil that burns, giving flash of tense light.



Electronic Flash = produces light by an instantaneous electrical in charges between two electrodes in a gas filled glass bulbs. The electrical energy for the discharge is kept in capacitor or condenser. It usually ranges from 1/300 second and 1/5000 second, and because of this, subject in fast motion can be arrested or stopped in the photographs.



4. SENSITIZED MATERIAL

= It refers to the film and photographic paper that basically composed of emulsion containing Silver Halides suspended in gelatin and coated on a transparent or reflective support.

Parts of the Sensitized Material

1. Emulsion = is that part of the film or photographic paper which contains the silver grains which is the one sensitive to light. In a colored film this emulsion surface can be composed of three layers (Blue, Green and Red) with filters intervening.

2. Anti Halation Backing = is the one designed to hold back the light and prevents halation.

3. Base = Support the emulsion



I. Types of Film

A. According to Use

1. Black and White Film = usually represented by a prefix or a suffix “Pan” or “Ortho” and generally used in black and white photography. Examples are Ortholith film, Tri X-Pan and Pan X-plus.

2. Colored Film = can be divided into two: the Negative type and the reversal type of colored film. The former is usually having names ending in color while the word chrome represents the latter.

e.g. Blue sensitive film, Ultra-violet film, Infra-red film, Orthochromatic film and Panchromatic film.

B. According to Spectral Sensitivity

Spectral sensitivity = is the responsiveness of the film emulsion to the different wavelength of the light course.

1. Blue – Sensitive film = sensitive to U.V. light and Blue Color.

2. Orthochromatic Film = Sensitive to U.V. Light up to the green. ( popular in the marker as KODALITH FILM)

3. Panchromatic film = Sensitive to U.V. Light up to red (sensitive to all colors of the visible light)

3.1. Process Panchromatic film = permit short exposures under average lighting condition and has the advantage of the grain structure.

3.2. Grain Panchromatic film

3.3. High Speed Panchromatic film designed originally for photographing object under adverse lighting condition.

4. Infra-red Film = Sensitive to all colors and to infra-red light.



FILM SPEED (Emulsion Speed)

This refers to the degree of sensitivity of the film to light.

1. ASA (American Standards Association) = this is expressed in arithmetic value system. The bigger the number the more sensitive the film is.

ASA 10, 20 , 30 , 40,50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1000

2. DIN ( Deutche Industre Normen) = expressed in Logarithmic value system. Used in the same principle as the ASA.



Din 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33 etc.



3. ISO (International Standard Organization) expressed as combination of ASA and DIN rating.





II. Photographic Paper

It is that sensitized material that will record the visible image in the final development and become the photograph.



Types of Photographic Papers

A. According to Emulsion Used (Silver halides content)

1. Silver Chloride paper = used for contact printing, the size of the positive print is the same as the size of the negative used. Sensitivity to light is low and give blue-black tones when properly developed.

2. Silver Bromide paper = used projection, printing and enlarging process. This is one of the most ideal photo paper used for police photography. Will give a black tone when properly developed.

3. Silver Chlorobromide paper = used both for projection and contact printing. Slow emulsion.

4. Variable contract paper = combines the contrast range in one paper it uses a special chlorobromide emulsion that produces varying contrast responses upon exposure to different colors of light.

B. According to Physical Characteristics

b.1. Weight

1. Light weight = designed for high flexibility and when paper thickness is not of consideration. Intended for purposes, which involves folding.

2. Single Weight = papers used for small prints or which are need to be mounted on solid and fine details necessary in the production. Used in ordinary photographic purposes.

3. Double weight = generally used for large prints because they stand up under rough treatment.

b.2. Surface Texture

a. Glossy paper =designed for fine details and brillant image formation.

b. Semi-mate paper = obscure the fine details

c. Rough papers = used for large prints or where breath rather than detail is necessary.

b.3. Color

a. White = better used in police photography.

b. Cream = preferred for pictorial effect, portraits, landscape or when warmth effect is desired.

c. Buff papers = prepare for tone prints

C. According to Contrast (grade)

1. Velox No. 0 = used for printing extremely contrast negative or extremely exposed film.

2. Velox No. 1 = used for high contrast negative (over exposed film)

3. Velox No. 2 = used for normal exposed film

4. Velox No. 3 = used for negative with weak contrast (under exposed)

5. Velox No. 4 = used to provide sufficient contrast to compensate for very thin or weak negatives. It is useful imprinting which high contrast is desired.

6. Velox No. 5 = for flat negative that are unprintable.



5. CAMERA

Is a light tight box with light gathering device and a means of blocking unwanted or unnecessary light from reaching the sensitized material.



Basically, camera can produce image with its four-(4) basic parts such as light tight box, lens, and shutter, Holder of sensitized material.



Essential Parts of a Camera

1. Light Tight Box – a box designed to keep light out and serve as a frame to hold other parts.

2. Lens – designed to collect or to focus the reflected light from an object to form an image on the film.

3. Shutter – designed to control the time during which the light reaches the film

4. Holder of the sensitized material – located at the opposite side of the lens designed to hold firmly the sensitized material to prevent the formation of the multiple or blurred image

5. View finder – designed to determine the field of view of the camera or the extent of the coverage of the given lens



OTHER PARTS OF A CAMERA

A. Viewing System

Is that part of the camera which provides the means of showing to the photographer the entire scene coverage that can be recorded in the sensitized material.

B. Film Advancer (film advance lever or k**b) =designed to transfer the exposed film to the other side or to the take up spool and the unexposed film will be the opposite side of the lens for another exposure.

C. Shutter speed = is that part of the camera which regulates the time exposure of the film thus, affecting the amount of light reaching the sensitized material. It is usually expressed in a fraction of a second.



1/1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/15 1/30 1/60 1/125 1/250 1/500 etc.



The speed number in the left is always two times powerful in terms of light gathering than that of the right number

Using a fast shutter speed the photographer can stop or “freeze” the action of a person provided that necessary adjustment on the lens opening be made in order to maintain normal exposure.

D. Lens Aperture = the ratio between the diameter of the whole lens in relation to the focal length of the lens. It is the light gathering power of the lens. Otherwise known as lens opening or relative aperture and it is expressed in F-number.



f 2.8 f-4 f-5.6 f-8 f-11 f-16



The lower the f-number, the bigger the lens opening and the bigger the lens opening the greater the volume of air that will passed through the lends and reach the sensitized material.



If the objective of a photographer is obtain the widest possible coverage of the lens in which objects are all sharp, It will be advisable to used a smaller lens opening.

E. Focusing = is that mechanism of a camera designed to control the degree of sharpness of the object to be photograph. It is usually obtained by estimating the distance from the camera and that of the object that will make a sharp or clear image.



Types of focusing device:

1. Range finder (Either coincidence or split image type)

Coincidence otherwise known as superimposed image focusing. In this type of focusing a single object will appeared double once the object is not in focus, but moving the focusing adjustment this double image will coincide or superimposed to form a single object.

Split Image focusing on the other hand will show an image in split or two parts once the object in not in focus once the two parts of the image has been united then the object is already focused









2. Ground Glass

This is observed from the viewing system of the camera, once the object is not in focused the object will be viewed to be blurred and will turn sharp and clear once adjusted.



3. Scale Bed

Estimating the distance of the object and adjusting the camera control based on his estimation do this.



TYPES OF THE CAMERA

1. View Finder Type – it is considered as the smallest and the simplest type of camera

2. Single Lens Reflex Camera – it is a type of camera best suited for police work due to its interchangeability of the lens

3. Twin Lens Reflex Camera – A type of camera with dual lens, one for focusing and the other for forming the image.

4. View or Press type – is considered the biggest and expensive type of camera, used for movie making

5. LENS

= It is the image-forming device of the lens that actually has a greater effect on the quality of the image to be formed.

= a medium or system which converge or diverge light rays passing through it to form an image.

= Can be a glass or transparent material, which permit light to pass through and change the direction of light.



Daniel Barbaro = first to introduce the use of lens in the camera.



CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES

1. According to the type of image to be produced

a. Positive or Convex Lens (Converging Lens) Characterized by the fact that it is thicker at the center and thinner at the side which is capable of bending the light together and forms the image inversely.

b. Negative or Concave Lens (diverging Lens) Characterized by the fact that it is thinner at the center and thicker at the side and forms the virtual image on the same side of the lens.

2. According to Degree of Corrections

a. Meniscus Lens = lens that has no correction.

b. Rapid Rectilinear Lens – lens corrected of distortion

c. Anastigmat Lens – correcting astigmatism

d. Achromatic Lens – correcting chromatic aberration

e. Apochromatic Lens – correcting both astigmatism and chromatic aberration

INHERRRENT LENS DEFECTS

1. Spherical Aberration= Inability of the lens to focus light passing the side of the lens producing an image that is sharp in the center and blurred at the side.

2. Coma = (Also known as lateral aberration) = Inability of the lens to focus light that travels straight or lateral, thus making it blurred while the light reaching the lens oblique is the one the is transmitted sharp.

3. Curvature of Field = the relation of the images of the different point are incorrect with respect to one another.

4. Distortion = Is a defect in shape not in sharpness. It can either be Pincushion distortion (curving inward) or Barrel (curving outward).

5. Chromatic Aberration = Inability of the lens to focus light of varying wavelength. The lens refracts rays of short wavelength more strongly than those of longer wavelength and therefore bringing blue rays to a shorter focus than the red.

6. Astigmatism= is a form of lens defects in which the horizontal and vertical axis are not equally magnified. Inability of the lens to focus both horizontal and vertical lines.

7. Chromatic Difference of Magnification

8. Flares = condition of the lens producing multiple images.



LENS CHARACTERISTICS

1. Focal Length – is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens is set to focus at infinite position. As according to focal lenses may be classified as:

a. Wide Angle or Short Focus = with focal length not longer than the diagonal half of the negative. Useful in taking photograph at short distance with wider area coverage.

b. Normal or Medium Focus = with focal length approximately equal but not longer than twice the diagonal half of the negative.

c. Long or Telephoto Lens = with focal length longer than twice the diagonal half of the negative. Best used in long distance photographing but with narrow area coverage.

d. ZOOM lens = lens with variable focal length or that which can be adjusted continuously by the movement of one or more elements in the lens system.

2. Relative Aperture – the light gathering power of the lens expressed in F-number

a. Depth of Field – is the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest object in apparent sharp focus when the lens

b. Hyperfocal distance = Is the nearest distance at which when a lens is focused with a given particular diaphragm opening will gives the maximum depth of field.

3. Focusing = is the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp image. The one that controls the degree of sharpness of the object.



6. CHEMICAL PROCESS

The process of making the latent image visible and permanent.

a. Development (Use of either D-76, Dektol or Universal Solution)

= Is the process necessary for reducing the silver halides to form the image.

Elon, Hydroquenone = used as main developing agents

b. Stop bath = normally composed of water with little amount of dilute acetic acid that serves as a means to prevent contamination between the developer and the acid fixer.

c. Fixation = Is the process by which all unexposed silver halides are dissolved or removed from the emulsion surface and making the image more permanent.

Sodium Thiosulfate (hypo) is the main fixing agent that dissolves unexposed silver halides.



Other chemicals used:

Acetic Acid and Boric acid = serves as neutralizer

Sodium Sulfate = serves as the preservative

Potassium Bromide = restrainer or hardener

Sodium bicarbonate and borax powder = serves as accelerator

Dodging = is the process of eliminating unwanted portion of the negative during enlarging.

Cropping = is the process of omitting an object during the process of enlarging and printing.

Vignetting = is the gradual fading of the image towards the side through skillful adjustment on the dodging board.

Dye toning = is the process designed in changing the color tone of the photograph.

Burning-In = refers to additional exposure on a desired portion of the negative used for purposes of making a balance exposure.