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प्रबेशिका परिक्षामा सहभागी हुँदै गरेका कक्षा दश का सबै भाईबहिनीहरूलाई Hamro Tuition Institute को तर्फबाट हार्दिक शुभकामना ।
यहाँ परिक्षाभन्दा अगाडि ध्यान दिनुपर्ने महत्वपूर्ण कुराहरु छन, कृपया हेर्नुहोला ।
1.जाँच भन्दा अगाडि एक पटक Exam Center भिजिट गर्नुहोस् ।
2.जहाँ पायो त्यहाँ बेच्न राखेको खानेकुरा नखानुस, परिक्षा अवधीभर कम्तिमा घरमै बनाएको स्वस्थ खाना खानुस् ।
3.भोली जाँच छ भन्दैमा रातभरि पढेर नबस्नुस, हाम्रो शरीरलाई आरामको पनि जरुरत पर्छ, अर्को कुरा अनिद्राले गर्दा बिरामी पनि पर्न सकिन्छ ।
4.परिक्षा केन्द्रमा जानु अगाडि खाइने खाजामा प्रोटिन र चिल्लोको सट्टा कार्बोहैड्रेटको मात्रा बढाउनुस, यसले तपाईंको दिमागलाई एक्टिभ बनाउछ ।
5.दिमाग "एक्टिभ" होला की भनेर चुरोट वा रक्सी खाने काम नगरनु होला ,यी बस्तुले त दिमाग झन कमजोर बनाइदिन्छन ।
6.घरबाट निस्कँदा यदी बाबाआमा हुनुन्छ भने उहाँहरुको आशिश लिएर निस्कनुहोस, तपाईंले आफ्नो गुरु वा ईश्वरलाई पनि सम्झिन सक्नुहुन्छ ।
7.नेपाल बन्द , प्रश्न पत्र निस्कासन आदी सम्बन्धी हल्ला चल्न सक्छन, हल्लाको पछाडि कहिले नलाग्नुस ।
8.आफुलाई चाहिने सामाग्री सबै आँफैले बोकेर जानुस, साथीसँग माग्दा समय नस्ट हुन्छ ।
9.आफुलाई परिक्षामा चहिने सामाग्री हरूको लिस्ट बनाएर भित्तामा टास्नुहोस र घरबाट हिंड्ने बेलामा ती सामाग्री भए नभएको एकएक चेक गरेर निस्कनु भएमा कुनै कुरा छुट्दैन ।
10.कम्तिमा पनि १० मिनेट अगाडि नै परिक्षा केन्द्रमा पुग्नुहोस् ।
11.भीडमा अरु विद्यार्थीलाई हेरेर- "उनिहरू त कती धेरै पढेका होलान, मैले केही पनि जान्दिनँ " आदी इत्यादी नेगेटिभ कुरा मनमा नखेलाउनुस् किनकी अरुले पनि तपाईंलाई हेरेर त्यही नै सोचिरहेका हुन्छन ।
12.उत्तर पूस्तिका पाएपछी त्यहाँ भर्नुपर्ने सबै कुराहरू भर्नुहोस् ।
13.प्रश्नपत्र पाए पछी सरसर्ती सुरुधेखी अन्तसम्म सबै प्रश्नहरुलाई हेर्नुहोस् ।
14. आफ्ना अक्षरहरूलाई सफा तरिकाले लेख्नुस् , अनावश्यक केरमेट नगर्नुस् ।
15.प्रश्नपत्र हल गर्दा सधैं सजिलोबाट सुरु गर्नुस् यसले तपाईंको आत्मबल बढाउँछ ।
16.परिक्षा हलमा साथीलाई सिकाउने अथवा साथीको हेर्ने प्रयास नगर्नुस् ।
17.जानेको छु भन्दैमा चहिने भन्दा लामो उत्तर लेखेर समय खेर नफाल्नुस् ।
18.कहिलेकाही सजिलो लाग्ने उत्तर पनि बिर्सिन सकिन्छ, त्यस्तो भएमा केही सेकेण्ड आँखा बन्द गरेर दाँया हत्केलालाई थोरै मसाज गर्नुस, यसले सम्झिन मद्दत गर्छ ।
19.आवश्यक परे मात्र Restroom जानुस् ,नत्र नजानुस् ।
20.आफ्नो उत्तरपुस्तिका अन्तिममा सुरुदेखी अन्तसम्म हेर्नुस् , कतै उत्तर छुटेको वा गल्ती लेखिएको त छैन ?
21.कहिले काही अन्तिम समयमा आएर कुनै प्रश्नको उत्तर लेख्न छुटेको वा गलत लेखेको थाहा हुन्छ , यदी त्यस्तो भएको खण्डमा "लौ बर्बाद भो, म खत्तमै भएँ" भनेर न आत्तिने बरु सुरुमा नै Recheck गर्नको लागि केही बढी नै समय छुट्याउने ।
22.आजको परिक्षा सकिए पछी साथीसँग "तैले कती मिलाइस? कती बिगारिस्?" आदी बिषयमा कुरा नगरिकन् खुरुखुरु आफ्नो भोलिको जाँचको तयारीमा जुट्नुस् ।
23.सबै बिषयको जाँच सकिए पछीको जुन छुट्टीको समय हुन्छ त्यो समयमा गलत संगतमा लाग्ने वा बरालिने गर्नुको सट्टा Creative र Productive काममा सदुपयोग गर्नुहोस् ।
24.रिजल्ट प्रकाशित भएपछी आफ्नो क्षमता र रुची हेरेर बिषय छनोट गर्नुहोस् र जीवनमा सफल हुनुहोस् ।
25. कुनै करियर/बिषय छनोट सम्बन्धी परामर्श चाहिएमा .
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Mendeleev’s periodic table

Mendeleev’s periodic rule states, “The physical and the chemical properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic weights.”



The merits of Mendeleev’s periodic table are:

1. Incorrect atomic weights of some of the arranged elements were corrected.

2. Existence of some undiscovered elements was predicted and Mendeleev left gaps for them.



The defects of Mendeleev’s periodic table are:

1. Hydrogen was placed in the group I with alkali metals like Li, Na etc but it could be also placed in the position of halogens.

2. The position of isotopes should be separated according to Mendeleev’s periodic rule but they were kept within the same group.

3. There were no suitable places for Lanthanides and Actinides series.



Modern periodic table

Modern periodic rule states that “The physical and the chemical properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic number.”

Modern Periodic Table has many advantages like Elements are arranged in 4 different blocks, they are arranged in the increasing number of atomic number, position of alkali metals, alkali earth metals, halogens, inert gases etc are separated. So it is superior than Mendeleev’s periodic table.



The features of Modern Periodic Table are:

1. The wrong position of some elements like Argon and Potassium, Cobalt and Nickel were rearranged by their atomic number.

2. Isotopes of the same element can be placed within the same group due to the same atomic number.

3. The controversy of Hydrogen was explained.

4. Elements have been classified into 4 different blocks.



Periods are the horizontal rows of elements in the periodic table. There are seven periods.



Characteristics of periods

The number of electron in the valance shell increases as we move from the left to right.

The valency of the electron increases from 1 to 4 then decreases to 0.

Atomic size of an atom decreases from left to right due to increase in nuclear charge as extra electron is added.

Ionization energy and electro positivity decreases as we move from left to right in periodic table.

Electro negativity and metallic character increases as we move from left to right.

Groups are the vertical columns of elements in periodic table. There are 18 groups arranged vertically.



Characteristics of groups

Atoms of the element in the group have the same number of the electron in the outermost shell.

Elements in the group have same valency except for the group 0, which do not take part in the chemical reaction.ar

Atomic size increases as we move down as one new shell is added.

Ionization increases as we move down the group.

Metallic character, chemical reactivity of metals increases but not metallic character and chemical reactivity decreases as we move down the group.





Sub-shells

Each shells consists number of sub-shells in which electrons are distributed .



s-block

It includes alkali and alkali earth metals which forms positive ions by losing one or two electron of the outermost shells.eg Ca, Mg



p-block

It includes metals, metalloids non metals and inert gases .they may have 1-6 valence electrons in the outermost shells.The completely filled p-orbital are noble gases.



d-block

It includes the transition element which lies in between s and p block elements. E.g. Ag

The valance electron lies in the d sub shells.



f- block

It includes the elements of lanthanide and actinide.



Aufbau principle

This principle explains how the atoms are being arranged in orbital. According to this principle, the sub shells of lowest energy is filled first then higher energy level are filled so on.



Valency

The total number of the electrons in the outermost shell of an atom, either shared or gained or lost in chemical combination is called valency. The outermost electron determines the chemical reactivity of the element.eg sodium has one valence electron that it transfers to the shell of other atom and becomes positively charged.

so the valency of sodium is 1.

Mushroom

Kingdom: Plant

Sub kingdom: cryptogams

Division: Thalloophyta

Type: mushroom

Mushroom is a non vascular, multi cellular, saprophytic fungus. Generally it grows in dark, moist and shady places on rotten logs of woods, tree trunks, decaying organic matter and in rich soil. It gets food from decomposing dead and decaying organic matters. So it is called saprophytic fungus.

The plant body of mushroom consists of two parts. They are mycelium and fruiting body. The vegetative body of mushroom which is thin thread like structure is called mycelium. The mycelium absorbs soluble food materials from the substratum.

Mushroom grows during the rainy season on the soil rich in dead and decaying organic matter, damp places and truck of trees.

The advantages of mushroom are:

Mushroom is taken as a nutritious food because it contains proteins, vitamins and minerals in a remarkable amount.

Mushroom helps to prevent high blood pressure, blood cholesterol, heart disease etc.

Mushrooms are cultivated from business point of view.

The disadvantages of mushroom are:

Some mushroom are poisonous, may cause the death of person if mistakenly taken.

Some mushroom paralyses the central nervous system.



Ferns:

Kingdom: plant

Sub kingdom: cryptogams

Division: pteridophyta

Type: fern

Ferns are terrestrial plants. Fern plants are kept under tracheophyta because it is differentiated into roots, steam and leaves. These plants show the alternation of generations with the sporophyte which is more prominent.

The systemic position of fern plant are: Adult sporophyte, Fertile pinna, V.S. of fertile pinnule, Young sporangium, Spore germination, Prothallus, Aechegonium, Fertilization, Young Embryo, Young Sporophyte.



The life cycle of fern plant is completed by the alternation of two distinct generations which are as follows:

Sporophytic generation: The fern plant is called sporophyte because it bears spores and reproduces asexually by means of spores. Under the favorable condition the spores in the soil undergo germination.

Gametophytic generation: In the early stage of germination the spores grow in the form of elongated tube like structure which continues to grow and finally forms a heart shaped structure called prothallus. The prothallus decays and the young sporophyte grow into a fern plant.

The phenomenon in which gametophytic and sporophytic generations come one after another and depend upon each other in a life cycle of fern plant is known as alternation of generation.

A biological process in which living organisms produce their own kind by asexual and sexual method is called reproduction. Living organism produces their own kind to maintain the life of their species on the earth.

The types of reproduction are:

Asexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction



Asexual Reproduction

Only one organism is involved.

Mitosis cell division occurs.

The reproduction takes place in short period.

The offspring is genetically similar with parents.

The types of asexual reproduction are:

Fission: The process of asexual reproduction in which a parent organism divides into two or more daughter organism in called fission. For eg: amoeba and paramecium

Budding: The method of asexual reproduction which takes place by the formation of a bud is called budding. For eg: Hydra and yeast.

Fragmentation: Fragmentation is the process in which the elongated body of an organism breaks into two or more fragments due to various agencies like heat, wind etc. For eg: Tapeworm and starfish.

Sporulation: The method of asexual reproduction which takes place by the formation of spores is called sporulation. For e.g.: Mucor and Moss.

Vegetative propagation: Vegetative propagation is the method of asexual reproduction in which new plants are produces by cutting, sowing or grafting of the vegetative parts of plant like root, stem or leaves.



The threes methods of artificial vegetative propagation are:

By cutting: In this method plants are propagated by cutting small pieces of the steam. When the pieces are placed in soil, roots emerge from the nodes.

Layering: In this method one of the lower branches of the plant is bent and covered partially with soil. The part inside the soil develops roots after three to four months.

Tissue Culture: It is a modern technique of vegetative propagation. It issue culture a small piece of tissue from a plant is kept in a container with essential nutrients under proper conditions.



Sexual Reproduction

Both male and female individuals are involved.

Here, meiosis division occurs first then mitosis cell division occurs.

The offsprings are not genetically same with their parents as they show characters of both parents.

In the plants, sexual reproduction takes place in two ways:

Pollination: It is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of the flower. It can be sub divided into self-pollination and cross-pollination. In self-pollination, the transfer of pollen grains takes place from anther to the stigma of the same flower plant. In cross pollination, the transfer of pollen grains takes place from anther of one plant flower to the stigma of another flower of the same or other plant.

Fertilization: The fusion of male and female gametes is known as fertilization. In the plants, the stigma produces sticky substance so pollen grains get stuck in it. The pollen grain is covered by two layers. In the internal layer, pollen tube is formed. The pollen tube reaches to the o***y through style. The pollen tubes divide and form male gametes which emerge towards the ovule. Then fertilization takes place and zygote is formed.

Cell Division
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The biological process in which a parent cell divides into two or four daughter cells is called cell division.



Cell division is necessary for the following reasons:

It is responsible for the reproduction in the living organisms.

It is necessary for the growth and development of any living organisms.

It is necessary for the healing of wounds, formation of skin cells, blood cells and replacement of old and dead cells from the body.

It is required for the hereditary characteristics, genetic variations and its stability.



There are two types of cell division:

a. Direct cell division: It is a simple cell division in which two daughter cells are formed from a cell without the formation of chromosomes.

b. Indirect cell division: The cell division in which the mother cell divides into two daughter cells each having the same equal number of chromosomes as present in the mother cell is known as mitosis cell division. It takes place in somatic cells so, it is also known as somatic cell division. This cell division is commonly found in asexual reproduction.



Mitosis cell division

It is divided into four stages:

Prophase

Metaphase

Anaphase

Telophase

Importance of Mitosis cell division:

It is the fundamental stage for the growth and development of an multi cellular organisms.

Mitosis plays a significant role in the asexual reproduction in the lower class plants and animals.

The daughter cells formed from mother cells contain same number of chromosomes in the nucleus as in the mother cells. Along with that, the genes also remain the same and DNA and RNA are also balanced. Thus, genetic stability is maintained in cells and organisms.

Mitosis replaces unwanted and, old and dead cells by living cells in the body. It regenerates cells to heal wounds.



Meiosis cell division

It is the double division that gives each cell having half number of chromosomes compared to the parent cell.

Meiosis cell division occurs in two stages:

Meiotic I

Nucleus division takes place in four stages.

They are divided into:

1. Prophase I

It is further divided into:

Leptoene (thread stage)

Zygotene (paring of homologous chromosomes called synapsis)

Pachytene (exchange of genes takes place called crossing over)

Diplotene (nucleus degenerates)

Diakinesis (movement of chaismata takes place called terminalization)

2. Metaphase I

3. Anaphase I

4. Telophase I



Meiotic II

Meiosis cell division is important for the following reasons.

It helps to form gametes and pores.

There is crossing over.

The whole process completes in successive divisions, which occur one after another.

The pairing of homologous chromosomes is called synapsis. It takes place in the zygotene sub stage of prophase I of meiosis cell division.

The process of exchanging genetic materials or chromosomal segments between the two non-sisters’ chromatids of a homologous pair is called crossing over. It happens in pachytene stage of meiosis I.

Stimulation And Reaction

The environmental change that brings about a response in the organism is called stimulus. For e.g.: Removal of hand from a hot thing.

The response of the organism to the stimulus is called reaction. For E.g. closing the leaflets to touch me not plant.



Taxis: The movement of the organism in the response of the stimulus by changing the location is called taxis.

Phototaxis: It is the movement of the organism under the influence of the light. E.g. earthworm

Chemo taxisIt is the movement of the organism under the influence of the chemicals.eg antheroziods of ferns moves towards the malic acid



Tropism: The movement of parts of plants (roots, steam or leaves) in response to an external stimulus is called tropism. It is a directional movement of the plant caused by their growth.

Phototropism: The movement of the parts of the plants in response to the stimulus of the light is known as phototropism. Example: movement of the shoot towards the light and roots away from the light.

Geotropism: The movement of the parts of plants in response to the stimulus of gravity is known as geotropism. Example: The stem grows upward i.e. Negative geotropism.

Hydrotropism: The movement of the parts of the plants in response to the stimulus of water is known as hydrotropism. Example: Roots of the plants grow in the direction of water.

Chemotropism: The movement of the parts of the plants in response to the stimulus of chemical is known as chemotropism. Example: Pollen tubes moves towards style because of positive chemotropism.

Thermo tropism: Movement of the parts of the plants in the response to the heat.



Nervous system

The system of the body that receives the information from the surroundings and transmits to the other parts of the body to show the corresponding effects is called nervous system.

Neurons: Neurons or nerves cell are the cells that transmits the message from one parts of the body to another.

The structures of neuron are:

Afferent or sensory nerves: They carry impulses from various parts of the body to the brain or to the spinal cord.

Efferent or motor nerves: They carry impulses from the brain or the spinal cord to various parts of the body.

Mixed nerves: Sometimes axons of both motor and sensor neurons from a nerve which is called mixed nerves. All the spinal nerves are of mixed type.



Parts of nervous system

Central nervous system

It is the controlling centre of the body which consists of brain and spinal cord

It is composed of three membranes together called meninges. The brain is located in sub arachnid cavity. This cavity is filled with the spinal fluid that protects the brain from shocks.



The three parts of brain are:

Cerebrum

It is the centre of intelligence, memory, imagination and emotions.

It controls the functions of other part of the brain.

Cerebellum

It maintains the equilibrium and controls the posture of the body.

It makes body movement smooth, steady and coordinate.

Brain stem

Brain stem connects the cerebrum and spinal cord. The bottom of the brain stem is medulla oblongata.

The functions of Medulla Oblongata are:

It receives and integrates signal from the spinal cord and sends resulting impulses to the cerebrum and cerebellum.

It contains different centers that regulate heart beat rate, blood pressure, breathing, vomiting and some involuntary action.



Spinal cord

Spinal cord is protected cylindrical structure that arises from the medulla oblongata and passes through the neural canal of the vertebral column. Spinal cords acts as link between spinal nerves and brain. It is the main centre of the reflex action.

The involuntary action performed by the muscles under the control of spinal cord without the involvement of brain is called reflex action.



Peripheral nervous system

The peripheral nervous system consists of spinal and cranial nerves.

The spinal nerves arises from the spinal cord and spread to different parts of the body. There are thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves in the human beings. Out of them 8 pairs are cervical, 12 pairs are thoracic, 5 pairs are lumbar, 5 pairs are sacral and one pair is coccygeal. They are mainly responsible for reflex actions of the body.

The cranial nerves arise from the brain and terminate inside I, except the vagus. The vagus is connected to the alimentary canal. There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves in human being. They control the activities of eyes, ears, tongue etc. Three pairs are cranial nerves are sensory, 5 pairs are motor and four pairs are of mixed types.



Autonomous nervous system

This nervous system maintains and regulates the internal environment by controlling the involuntary actions of the internal organs. It is divided in to sympathetic and parasympathetic.

Exocrine glands are ducted glands. The secret juices like mucus, saliva, tear etc. Their secretions are related life processes like respiration, digestion etc.

Endocrine are ductless glands. The secret juices like mucus, saliva, and tear etc.They secrete hormones. Their secretions are responsible for control and coordination of growth.

Hormones

Hormones are the chemical substance secreted by endocrine and heterocrine glands. Theyare chemical messenger of the body because it carries chemicals to all parts of the body through blood circulation to bring about the harmonious working of the body.

The functions of hormones are as follows:

They stimulate and control various physiological and metabolic activities of the body.

They regulate growth and reproduction.



Some of the major glands and their functions:

Thyroid gland: It is situated in the neck. Its function is to secrete thyroxin which contains iodine which controls general metabolism.

Pancreas: It is found in alimentary canal. It secretes insulin and glucagon. Insulin maintains sugar level in the blood and glucagon supplies sugar in the blood.

Pituitary gland: It is found in the skull. It secretes growth hormone and stimulating hormone. Growth hormone controls the growth of the body and stimulating hormone controls and stimulates in the secretion of the other glands.

Go**ds: Male go**ds are found in the sc***um. It secretes testosterone, which develops and maintains male secondary characters. It is also responsible for production of sperms.

Female go**ds are found in the female reproductive system. It secretes Oestrogen and Progesterone. Oestrogen controls the growth of mammary gland as well as development of female secondary characters. Progesterone prepares uterus suitable for the development of embryo.

Adrenal gland: Adrenal gland is situated on the top of each kidney. Adrenalin hormone secreted by the adrenal gland at the time of emergency prepares the body face and emergency situation for flight, fright or fight. So adrenalin is called an emergency hormone.

Parathyroid gland: They are located on the thyroid gland. They secrete parathormone, which controls the calcium metabolism of the body and helps in normal growth of bones and tissues.