25/08/2015
History of agriculture
Agriculture involving
domestication of plants was
developed around 11,500 years ago
separately in both the Fertile
crescent and at Chogha Golan in
modern day Iran, where wild barley,
wheat, and lentils were cultivated
and with domesticated forms of
wheat appeared about 9,800 years
ago.[1] Agriculture has undergone
significant developments since the
time of the earliest cultivation. The
Fertile Crescent of Western Asia,
Egypt and India were sites of the
earliest planned sowing and
harvesting of plants that had
previously been gathered in the
wild. Independent development of
agriculture occurred in northern and
southern China, Africa's Sahel, New
Guinea, parts of India and several
regions of the Americas.[2]
Agricultural techniques such as
irrigation, crop rotation, the
application of fertilizers were
developed soon after the Neolithic
Revolution but have made
significant strides in the past 200
years. The Haber-Bosch method for
synthesizing ammonium nitrate
represented a major breakthrough
and allowed crop yields to
overcome previous constraints.
In the past century, agriculture in
the developed nations, and to a
lesser extent in the developing
world, has been characterized by
enhanced productivity, the
replacement of human labor by
synthetic fertilizers and pesticides,
selective breeding, and
mechanization. The recent history of
agriculture has been closely tied
with a range of political issues
including water pollution, biofuels,
genetically modified organisms,
tariffs, and farm subsidies.
Overview
Agricultural practices such as
irrigation, crop rotation, application
of fertilizers and pesticides, and the
domestication of livestock were
developed long ago, but have made
great progress in the past century.
The history of agriculture has
played a major role in human
history, as agricultural progress has
been a crucial factor in worldwide
socio-economic change. Division of
labour in agricultural societies made
commonplace specializations rarely
seen in hunter-gatherer cultures,
which allowed the growth of towns
and cities, and the complex
societies we call civilizations. When
farmers became capable of
producing food beyond the needs
of their own families, others in their
society were free to devote
themselves to projects other than
food acquisition. Historians and
anthropologists have long argued
that the development of agriculture
made civilization possible.
According to geographer Jared
Diamond, the costs of agriculture
were: "the average daily number of
work hours increased, nutrition
deteriorated, infectious disease and
body wear increased, and lifespan
shortened."[3]
Prehistoric origins
Forest gardening, a plant-based
food production system, is thought
by one researcher to be the world's
oldest agroecosystem.[4] Forest
gardens originated in prehistoric
times along jungle-clad river banks
and in the wet foothills of monsoon
regions. In the gradual process of a
family improving their immediate
environment, useful tree and vine
species were identified, protected
and improved whilst undesirable
species were eliminated. Eventually
superior foreign species were
selected and incorporated into the
family's garden.[5]
Evidence of plant cultivation dating
from 23,000 years ago has been
found at the Ohalo II site.[6]
Neolithic
Further information: Neolithic
Revolution
Threshing of grain in
ancient Egypt
The Fertile Crescent of Western Asia
first saw the domestication of
animals, starting the Neolithic
Revolution. Between 10,000 and
13,000 years ago, the ancestors of
modern cattle, sheep, goats and
pigs were domesticated in this area.
The gradual transition from wild
harvesting to deliberate cultivation
happened independently in several
areas around the globe.[7]
Agriculture allowed for the support
of an increased population, leading
to larger societies and eventually
the development of cities. It also
created the need for greater
organization of political power (and
the creation of social stratification),
as decisions had to be made
regarding labor and harvest
allocation and access rights to water
and land. Agriculture bred
immobility, as populations settled
down for long periods of time,
which led to the accumulation of
material goods.[8]
Early Neolithic villages show
evidence of the ability to process
grain, and the Near East is the
ancient home of the ancestors of
wheat, barley and peas. There is
evidence of the cultivation of figs in
the Jordan Valley as long as 11,300
years ago, and cereal (grain)
production in Syria approximately
9,000 years ago. During the same
period, farmers in China began to
farm rice and millet, using man-
made floods and fires as part of
their cultivation regimen.[7] Fiber
crops were domesticated as early as
food crops, with China
domesticating h**p, cotton being
developed independently in Africa
and South America, and the Near
East domesticating flax.[9] The use
of soil amendments, including
manure, fish, compost and ashes,
appears to have begun early, and
developed independently in several
areas of the world, including
Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley and
Eastern Asia.[10]
Roman harvesting machine
Squash was grown in Mexico nearly
10,000 years ago, while maize-like
plants, derived from the wild
teosinte, began to be seen at
around 9,000 years ago. The
derivation of teosinte into modern
corn was slow, however, and it took
until 5,500[7] to 6,000 years ago to
turn into what we know today as
maize. It then gradually spread
across North America and was the
major crop of Native Americans at
the time of European exploration.
[11] Beans were domesticated
around the same time, and together
these three plants formed the Three
Sisters nutritional foundation of
many native populations in North
and Central America. Combined
with peppers, these crops provided
a balanced diet for much of the
continent.[12] Grapes were first
grown for wine approximately 8,000
years ago, in the Southern Caucasus,
and by 3000 BC had spread to the
Fertile Crescent, the Jordan Valley
and Egypt.[13]
Agriculture advanced to Europe
slightly later, reaching the northeast
of the continent from the east
around 4000 BC. The idea that
agriculture spread to Europe, rather
than independently developing
there, has led to two main
hypotheses. The first is a "wave of
advance", which holds that
agriculture traveled slowly and
steadily across the continent, while
the second, "population pulse"
theory, holds that it moved in
jumps.[14] Also around 6000 years
ago, horses first began to be
domesticated in the Eurasian
steppes. Initially used for food, it
was quickly discovered that they
were useful for field work and
carrying goods and people.[15]
Around 5,000 years ago, sunflowers
were first cultivated in North
America, while South America's
Andes region was developing the
potato.[7] A minor center of
domestication, the indigenous
peoples of the eastern United States
appear to have domesticated
numerous crops, including to***co.
[16]
Bronze and Iron Ages
Beginning around 3000 BC,
nomadic pastoralism, with societies
focused on the care of livestock for
subsistence, appeared independently
in several areas in Europe and Asia.
The main region was the steppes
stretching from the Great Hungarian
Plain to the Northeast China Plain,
where cattle, sheep, horses, and to a
lesser extent yaks and bactrian
camels provided sustenance. The
second was in Arabia, where one-
hu**ed camels were the main
animal, with sheep, goats and
horses also seen. The third area was
a band of societies in areas of
eastern and central Africa with a
tropical savannah climate. Cattle
and goats were found most often in
this area, with smaller numbers of
sheep, horses and camels. A fourth
area, more minor than the others,
was found in northern Europe and
Asia and was focused on reindeer
herding.[17]
Between 2500 and 2000 BC, the
simplest form of the plough, called
the ard, spread throughout Europe,
replacing the hoe. This change in
equipment significantly increased
cultivation ability, and affected the
demand for land, as well as ideas
about property, inheritance and
family rights.[18] Before this period,
simple digging sticks or hoes were
used. These tools would have also
been easier to transport, which was
a benefit as people only stayed
until the soil's nutrients were
depleted. However, as the
continuous cultivating of smaller
pieces of land became a sustaining
practice throughout the world, ards
were much more efficient than
digging sticks.[19] As humanity
became more stationary, empires,
such as the New Kingdom of Egypt
and the Ancient Romans, arose,
dependent upon agriculture to feed
their growing populations, and
slavery, which was used to provide
the labor needed for continually
intensifying agricultural processes.
Agricultural technology continued
to improve, allowing the expansion
of available crop varieties, including
a wide range of fruits, vegetables,
oil crops, spices and other products.
[20][21] China was also an
important center for agricultural
technology development during this
period. During the Zhou dynasty
(1666–221 BC), the first canals were
built, and irrigation was used
extensively. The later Three
Kingdoms and Northern and
Southern dynasties (221–581 AD)
brought the first biological pest
control, extensive writings on
agricultural topics and technological
innovations such as steel and the
wheelbarrow.[22]
In the ancient world, fresh products,
such as meats, dairy products and
fresh fruits and vegetables, were
likely consumed relatively close to
where they were produced. Less
perishable products, such as grains,
preserved foods, olive oil and wine,
were often traded over an extensive
network of land and sea routes. The
ancient trade in agricultural goods
was well established, with wine
traded in the Mediterranean region
in the 6th century BC and Rome
receiving extensive shipments of
grain as tax payments by the 2nd
century BC. Huge amounts of grain
were transported, mainly by sea,
and it was during this period that
the subsidization of grain farming
began, for the prevention of famine.
Ancient Rome was a major center
for agricultural trade. Trade routes
stretched from Britain and
Scandinavia in the west to India
and China in the east, and included
major crops, such as grain, wine and
olive oil (also a fuel for oil lamps),
as well as additional products,
including spices, fabrics and drugs.
[23]
In Ancient Greece and Rome, many
scholars documented farming
techniques, including the use of
fertilizers.[10] Much of what was
believed about farming and plant
nutrition at this time was later
found to be incorrect, but their
theories provided the scientific
foundation for the development of
agricultural theories through the
Middle Ages. Ideas about soil
fertility and fertilization remained
much the same from the time of
Greco-Roman scholars until the
19th century, with correspondingly
low crop yields.[10] By the time of
Alexander the Great's conquests
(330–323 BC), the role of horses
had developed, and they played a
huge role in warfare and
agriculture. Innovations continued
to be developed which allowed
them to work longer, harder and
more efficiently. By medieval times
they became the primary source of
power for agriculture, transport and
warfare, a position they held until
the development of the steam and
internal combustion engines.[15]
The Mayan culture developed
several innovations in agriculture
during its peak, which ranged from
400 BC to 900 AD and was heavily
dependent upon agriculture to
support its population. The Mayans
used extensive canal and raised
field systems to farm the large
portions of swampland on the
Yucatán Peninsula.[24][25]
Middle Ages
Agricultural calendar from a
manuscript of Pietro de
Crescenzi.
The Middle Ages saw significant
improvements in the agricultural
techniques and technology. During
this time period, monasteries spread
throughout Europe and became
important centers for the collection
of knowledge related to agriculture
and forestry. The manorial system,
which existed under different names
throughout Europe and Asia,
allowed large landowners significant
control over both their land and its
laborers, in the form of peasants or
serfs.[26] During the medieval
period, the Arab world was critical
in the exchange of crops and
technology between the European,
Asia and African continents. Besides
transporting numerous crops, they
introduced the concept of summer
irrigation to Europe and developed
the beginnings of the plantation
system of sugarcane growing
through the use of slaves for
intensive cultivation.[27] Population
continued to increase along with
land use. From 100 BC to 1600 AD,
methane emissions, produced by
domesticated animals and rice
growing, increased substantially.[28]
By 900 AD in Europe, developments
in iron smelting allowed for
increased production, leading to
developments in the production of
agricultural implements such as
ploughs, hand tools and horse
shoes. The plough was significantly
improved, developing into the
mouldboard plough, capable of
turning over the heavy, wet soils of
northern Europe. This led to the
clearing of forests in that area and a
significant increase in agricultural
production, which in turn led to an
increase in population.[29] A similar
plough, which may have developed
independently, was also found in
China as early as the 9th century.
[30] At the same time, farmers in
Europe moved from a two field crop
rotation to a three field crop
rotation in which one field of three
was left fallow every year. This
resulted in increased productivity
and nutrition, as the change in
rotations led to different crops
being planted, including legumes
such as peas, lentils and beans.
Inventions such as improved horse
harnesses and the whippletree also
changed methods of cultivation.[29]
Watermills were initially developed
by the Romans, but were improved
throughout the Middle Ages, along
with windmills, and used to grind
grains into flour, cut wood and
process flax and wool, among other
uses.[31]
