Agricultural Technology Student Association - agtsa Coal Chapter.

Biodiversity and agriculture are
strongly interdependent
Biodiversity is the basis of agriculture.
It has enabled farming systems to
evolve ever since agriculture was first
developed some 10,000 years ago.
Biodiversity is the origin of all species
of crops and domesticated livestock
and the variety within them. It is also
the foundation of ecosystem services
essential to sustain agriculture and
human well-being. Today's crop and
livestock biodiversity are the result of
many thousands years of human
intervention.
Biodiversity and agriculture are
strongly interrelated because while
biodiversity is critical for agriculture,
agriculture can also contribute to
conservation and sustainable use of
biodiversity. Indeed, sustainable
agriculture both promotes and is
enhanced by biodiversity.
Maintenance of this biodiversity is
essential for the sustainable
production of food and other
agricultural products and the benefits
these provide to humanity, including
food security, nutrition and
livelihoods.
Importance of agricultural
biodiversity
Biodiversity is essential to:
ensure the production of food, fibre,
fuel, fodder...
maintain other ecosystem services
allow adaptation to changing
conditions - including climate change
and sustain rural peoples' livelihoods
Agricultural biodiversity provides
humans with food and raw materials
for goods - such as cotton for
clothing, wood for shelter and fuel,
plants and roots for medicines, and
materials for biofuels - and with
incomes and livelihoods, including
those derived from subsistence
farming. Agricultural biodiversity also
performs ecosystem services such as
soil and water conservation,
maintenance of soil fertility and biota,
and pollination, all of which are
essential to human survival. In
addition, genetic diversity of
agricultural biodiversity provides
species with the ability to adapt to
changing environment and evolve, by
increasing their tolerance to frost,
high temperature, drought and water-
logging, as well as their resistance to
particular diseases, pests and parasites
for example. This is particularly
important regarding climate change.
The evolution of biodiversity, and
therefore both its and our survival,
mainly depends on this genetic
diversity.
The importance of agricultural
biodiversity encompasses socio-
cultural, economic and environmental
elements. All domesticated crops and
animals result from human
management of biodiversity, which is
constantly responding to new
challenges to maintain and increase
productivity under constantly varying
conditions.
Special nature of agricultural
biodiversity
The Conference of the Parties has
recognized "the special nature of
agricultural biodiversity, its distinctive
features, and problems needing
distinctive solutions" ( COP decision
V/5, appendix). Indeed, several
features set agricultural biodiversity
apart other components of
biodiversity:
Agricultural biodiversity is essential to
satisfy basic human needs for food
and livelihood security.
Agricultural biodiversity has been -
and is still - shaped and developed
through human activities and
practices over generations. Farmers’
communities play a key role as
custodians and managers of
agricultural biodiversity. This is why
local and traditional knowledge and
culture are considered as integral
parts of agricultural biodiversity
management.
Because of the degree of human
management, conservation of
agricultural biodiversity in production
systems is inherently linked to
sustainable use.
Nonetheless, much agricultural
biodiversity is now conserved ex situ
in gene banks or breeders' materials.
For crops and domestic animals,
diversity within species is at least as
important as diversity between species
and has been greatly expanded
through agriculture.
Many farming systems are based on
alien crop species introduced from
elsewhere; this creates a high degree
of interdependence between countries
for the genetic resources for food and
agriculture.
The interaction between the
environment, genetic resources and
management practices that occurs in
situ within agro-ecosystems often
contributes to maintaining a dynamic
portfolio of agricultural biodiversity.

The Federal Ministry of Agriculture disclosed on the 15th of
August 2017, that Nigeria will be saving about N300 Billion it
spends annually on importation of rice as local production
of the commodity has now reached 15 million metric
tonnes.
Hopefully we get to buy rice this December at a cheaper
rate.

Top 10 Most Competitive Courses In Nigeria Universities
There are lot of courses in Nigerian universities but some
are more competitive than the other.
How do I know they are competitive? Simple! Take a look at
the previous years cut off marks and
You will know what I’m talking about.
Below are the list of competitive courses in Nigeria starting
from the least course ;
10. BIOCHEMISTRY
This course is competitive, a lot of candidate prefer to
choose this course, why?
Just because they think they can cross over to medicine,
Now you see why it is included.
9. COMPUTER SCIENCE
It is now longer a news that we are in the “computer
world”.Candidate
choose this course because they believe that there are a lot
of opportunities for the courses.
8. ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING
Everybody want to become an engineer one way or the
other . As the world is moving fast, so as technology. A lot of
opportunity are in engineering, sincerely.
7.POLITICAL SCIENCE
We all know what is going on in Nigeria politics, I should
notbe telling you.
Everyboody want to play politics one way or the other. In
Nigeria, there are a lot of opportunities
For those who know who (connections).
6. NURSING
Nurse, Nurse! The title sounds good to the ear right? Yeah.
Most female candidates will fill in
for nursing , like 60% of them. Nursing is a good course in
Nigeria. You don’t have to look for job before
you see one.
5. DENTITSRY AND DENTAL SURGERY :
Due to the limited slot to this course in universities, There is
high competition . What do i mean? For example OAU admit
only 25 student in this course, UI admit only 40 while some
other school admit 10 candidate. Now you should know for
yourself.
4. AGRICULTURE
Lately, there have been rise in the cut off mark of any
agriculture related courses which means that the number of
students applying for these courses are increasing year after
year.
3. PETROCHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Everybody wants to work in CHEVRON, NNPC and so on,
why? Maybe because of the huge salary and allowances
since that is what students pursue. As a result of this, high
number of students applyfor this course.
2. LAW
We all what law means. It makes you a lawyer. 90% of art
students apply for this course year after year. Maybe
because of the respect they earn from people, I just don’t
know.
1. MEDICINE & SURGERY
80% of the science students waqnt tobecome doctors maybe
becausetheir parents wants them to be, or maybe because
of the respect and honour in the course. It shouldn’t be new
to you anymore that medicine have the medicine have the
highest cut off mark which means it is competitive.
Remember these list are from my research, that is why I
clearly state reasons; so if you do agree or you feel the list is
not complete. Then you can comment below with your
reasons clearly stated.

1.pr

Relief for Nigerian farmers
as Commercial Agricultural
Credit Scheme passes second
reading
By Samson Atekojo Usman on May 4, 2016
The bill seeking credit scheme for
Commercial agriculture in Nigeria in
partnership with the Central Bank of Nigeria
sponsored by Senator Mao Ohabunwa (PDP)
Abia North Senatorial District has passed
through the second reading in the Senate.
In his lead debate on Wednesday,
Ohabunwa said, farmers in Nigeria
currently contribute over 43% of the
nation’s gross domestic product and two
third of employment generation, stressing
that if there was legal framework for
advancing loans to the country’s critical
sector, it could drive the economy at a
larger scale.
“A Bill for an Act to establish the Agricultural
Credit Scheme to promote Commercial
Agriculture in Nigeria, ensure credit support
for production, storage and processing of
target commodities, market development,
agricultural enterprise and for other related
matters, 2016,” he submitted.
Ohabunwa added that peasant farmers
would have the opportunity of mechanized
farming in commercial quantity for export
and such could happen if there was
coordinated credit scheme.
Senator Ahmed Lawan (APC), Yobe South
allayed fears that in putting laws together
as it concerns agriculture, it should be
taken into consideration those who were
ready to divert funds in order to make sure
that such dedicated credit was not diverted.
He recalled that in the past, the federal
government earmarked N200billion with
the Central Bank for Commercial agriculture,
but was embezzled as the credit never got
to farmers.
“Mr. President, Distinguished Colleagues, in
times past, the sum of N200billion Credit
Scheme was given by government, but was
embezzled by politicians disguised as
farmers”, he pointed.

GRASSCUTTER
Grasscutter or Greater Cane Rat (Thryonomys
swinderianus) is one of two species of cane rats.
Grasscutters occur in grassland or in wooded
savanna throughout the humid and sub humid
areas of Africa south of the Sahara. They often live
in forest-savanna habitats where grass is present.
Cane rats can grow to nearly 2 ft (0.61 m) in length
and weigh a little less than 8.6 kg. It has rounded
ears, a short nose, and coarse bristly hair. Its
forefeet are smaller than its hind feet, each with
three toes.
Cane rats live in small groups led by a single male.
They are nocturnal and make nests from grasses or
burrow underground. Individuals of the species
may live in excess of four years
As humans expanded into the cane rat's native
habitats, the cane rats likewise expanded from
their native reeds into the plantations, particularly
the sugar cane plantations from which they derive
their name. Their tendency to adopt plantations as
habitat, where they feed on agricultural crops such
as maize, wheat, sugar-cane and cassava, often
earns them the label of agricultural pest.
Economic Importance
Grasscutter meat is delicious and is regarded as a
delicacy in Nigeria and West Africa. The peoples of
the region also utilize the cane rat as a potential
food source (bush meat). The Nutritive value of
grasscutter is relatively high. The crude protein of
the meat is about 22.7% compared to 20.7% for
rabbit meat, 19.25% for chicken and 18.25 for
beef.
In all the countries in the West Africa sub-region,
grasscutter meat is in high demand because of its
unique taste. The meat is so given high attention in
the market that it is more expensive than poultry,
pork, beef and goat meat. So if you can get
involved in grasscutter farming in Nigeria and rear
grasscutter in commercial quantity, you are in big
money! Relaxation spots, hotels, eateries, palm
wine joints and meat traders in the open market
will be your regular customers. This is because they
will need a steady supply to treat their own
customers. So take advantage of the large market
for this product, the few people that are into
grasscutter farming cannot meet the growing
demand for the meat.
Preliminary survey by the Animal Research
Institute found that some rural folks, using grass
and household waste from cassava, were able to
raise grasscutter stocks which they sold at a price of
$23 (N 3647.90) per animal of about 4 kg-weight.
They also sold 3-month old animals for breeding at
$9 (N 1427.44) per animal, irrespective of sex[1] .
Compared to other traditional livestock production,
grasscutter production offers a relatively lower
variable cost of production. For instance, feeding
constitutes 82% of total variable cost of production
in poultry enterprises [2], but this is considerably
low in grasscutter production.
HOUSING
In the Savanna area of West Africa, people have
traditionally captured wild grasscutters and raised
them at home. As an extension of this, organized
grasscutter husbandry has been initiated in West
Africa. The animals are provided with marshy,
tightly fenced areas with plenty of plant cover. The
young are harvested from these areas and raised
separately [3].
Different types of material are used in the
construction of the rearing shed, including bricks or
breezeblocks, bamboo, straw and matting. The key
is to use local materials in order to keep down
construction costs. The building should be
ventilated and offer enough light to facilitate
rearing activities. The long sides of the structure
are made of a low wall 1.5 m high, with the upper
half covered with chicken wire. The roof can be
made out of corrugated iron, straw or any other
kind of waterproof material. Concrete floors and
wall could also be used in the construction of the
house.
A prototype of the
concrete house
Grasscutters are kept in pens inside the rearing
shed. The number of pens depends on the
production objectives. It is recommended to have
one breeding female per pen. The recommended
surface area per adult animal in the pen is 0.2 m2
( [4]).
Alternatively, for small scale production, housing of
grasscutter cage could be done by done by putting
under staircase or in the background
FEEDING
Grasscutters are vegetarian. They consume nuts,
barks, and the soft parts of grasses and shrubs.
They particularly do well with elephant grass and
sweet potatoes. They commonly "raid" cassava and
yam plantations, and are considered local pests.
They also feed on fruits such as: pineapple, mango,
pawpaw etc. They also enjoy food crops such as
rice, legume, maize etc [5].
The animals should have continual access to food.
Fodder should be given two hours before giving
concentrates, once or twice a day, preferably in the
morning and evening.
Water should always be available. Grassy fodder
should be dried in the sun at least 24 hours before
being given. Do not give damp fodder. Concentrate
can be given by themselves or in combination with
fodder. It can be made up from just one ingredient
or several. If using single ingredient concentrates,
make sure to alternate when you give them. In
contrast, if the concentrate is a mix of two or three
ingredients, then the same contrite can be given
every time. Any changes in concentrates should be
made over four to five days in order to allow the
digestive system to adapt [6].
Profitability of Grasscutter
Rearing of grasscutter is very profitable, less stress
(the stress of feeding them is less, when compared
to other livestock rearing like fishery, piggery,
poultry etc.), and highly productive. Grasscutter has
a high reproductive rate, because they are
polygamous in nature, if one rears a male
alongside with four females for a year, it’s possible
to get 50-56 grasscutters and each grasscutter price
ranges from # 4000 – #6500 sometimes they can go
for #10000. Grasscutters are herbivorous which
makes them easy to feed, can be started on a small
scale with a space of less than one room, it has
good prospects for exporting. These are just some
of the few reasons why Grasscutter Rearing is
efficiently profitable.
CAPITAL
You could start grasscutter farming on a small scale
with only N50,000

Simple agricultural innovation to empower farmers......

Agriculture sustains the lives of millions in
the global South both in terms of nutrition
and income, but changing rainfall patterns
and poor storage can severely cut
productivity. Simple innovation can help
farmers grow healthier crops and store
their produce for longer. But for an
invention to work, it has to be affordable
and integrate smoothly into farmers’
existing workflow.
The field lab of Kasetsart University’s
Bangkhen Campus in Bangkok, Thailand,
serves as a training hub in agricultural
practices for students, researchers,
development workers and entrepreneurs.
The centre also exhibits some cheap
technologies designed to improve food
security and boost farmers’ income.
In this audio slideshow, we cast a critical
eye over some of them: a store room
cooling system to retain the freshness of
produce and reduce waste, a chimney solar
dryer to dry and preserve fresh produce;
and a solar-powered drip irrigation system.

Hear me narrate my experience in the exam
hall, as i refused to read and prepare for d
exam...
. . . As I bounced into the Exam hall,I had
just one prayer on my mind, which is ‘God
please let me sit near a person that knows
book,cos the stupid boy i told to send me
the answers on my phone looks like one
who doesn’t have sense.’
God finally answered my prayer,the girl that i
sat with was an Albino and she wore
eyeglass that has rope, so i knew for sure
that she knows book wella.
As the paper started, this girl started to
misbehave o. She was just covering her
answers, but me as a sharp guy,i was spying
the answer from one deadly angle.
When it remained just 10 minutes to go, this
girl caught me copying her and started
shouting at me, but i just ignored her, since
i had almost copied finish.
The next thing that i heard was my phone’s
message tone and i thought to myself ‘This
guy has finally sent the answer’ I sighed and
then told the invigilator to give Me a fresh
answer booklet. I tore the one that i had
copied from the albino girl and used it to
stone Her.
I kept the fresh booklet on top my table and
used style to open the message,….i saw “To
download IF YOU ASK ME by Omawumi, text
*** to *** ……’. .
Choi!! Na mtn .....
If u were in my position,what will u do??'?

EVALUATION:
1. Albert Einstein » Physicist (Best known for
the General Theory of
Relativity)
Most of us take Einstein's name as
synonymous with genius, but he
didn't always show such promise. Einstein
did not speak until he was
four and did not read until he was seven,
causing his teachers and
parents to think he was mentally
handicapped, slow and anti-social.
Eventually, he was expelled from school and
was refused admittance
to the Zurich Polytechnic School. It might
have taken him a bit longer,
but most people would agree that he caught
on pretty well in the end,
winning the Nobel Prize and changing the
face of modern physics.
2. Walt Disney » Business Man (Founder of
The Walt Disney
Company).
Today Disney rakes in billions from
merchandise, movies and theme
parks around the world, but Walt Disney
himself had a bit of a rough
start. He was fired by a newspaper editor
because, "he lacked
imagination and had no good ideas."
After that, Disney started a number of
businesses that didn't last too
long and ended with bankruptcy and failure.
He kept plugging along,
however, and eventually found a recipe for
success that worked.
3. Isaac Newton » Scientist (Best known for:
Universal gravitation,
Newton's method, Newtonian mechanics,
Optics, Infinitesimal
calculus.)
Newton was undoubtedly a genius when it
came to math, but he had
some failings early on. He never did
particularly well in school and
when put in charge of running the family
farm, he failed miserably, so
poorly in fact that an uncle took charge and
sent him off to Cambridge
where he finally blossomed into the scholar
we know today.
4. Thomas Edison » Inventor and
Businessman (Best known for
Electric Light Bulb.)
In his early years, teachers told Edison he
was "too stupid to learn
anything."
Work was no better, as he was fired from
his first two jobs for not
being productive enough. Even as an
inventor, Edison made 1,000
unsuccessful attempts at inventing the light
bulb. Of course, all those
unsuccessful attempts finally resulted in the
design that worked.
5. Henry Ford » Business Man (Founder of
Ford Motor.)
While Ford is today known for his innovative
assembly line and
American-made cars, he wasn't an instant
success. In fact, his early
businesses failed and left him broke five
times before he founded the
successful Ford Motor Company.
6. Soichiro Honda » Business Man (Founder
of Honda Motor.)
The billion-dollar business that is Honda
began with a series of failures
and fortunate turns of luck. Honda was
turned down by Toyota Motor
Corporation for a job after interviewing for
a job as an engineer, leaving
him jobless for quite some time.
He started making scooters of his own at
home, and spurred on by his
neighbors, finally started his own business.
7. Akio Morita » Business Man (Founder of
Sony Corporation.)
You may not have heard of Morita but
you've undoubtedly heard of his
company, Sony.
Sony's first product was a rice cooker that
unfortunately didn't cook
rice so much as burn it, selling less than 100
units. This first setback
didn't stop Morita and his partners as they
pushed forward to create a
multi-billion dollar company.
8. Orville and Wilbur Wright (Wright
Brothers) » Airplane Inventors
(Education: Completed High School.)
These brothers battled depression and
family illness before starting the
bicycle shop that would lead them to
experimenting with flight.
After numerous attempts at creating flying
machines, several years of
hard work, and tons of failed prototypes,
the brothers finally created a
plane that could get airborne and stay there.
9. Abraham Lincoln » US Politician
While today he is remembered as one of the
greatest leaders of our
nation, Lincoln's life wasn't so easy. In his
youth he went to war a
captain and returned a private (if you're not
familiar with military ranks,
just know that private is as low as it goes.)
Lincoln didn't stop failing there, however. He
started numerous failed
business and was defeated in numerous
runs he made for public
office.
"Next time you're feeling down about your
failures in college or in a
career, keep these famous people in mind
and remind yourself that
sometimes failure is just the first step
towards success."
Be unstoppable, no matter what.

History of agriculture
Agriculture involving
domestication of plants was
developed around 11,500 years ago
separately in both the Fertile
crescent and at Chogha Golan in
modern day Iran, where wild barley,
wheat, and lentils were cultivated
and with domesticated forms of
wheat appeared about 9,800 years
ago.[1] Agriculture has undergone
significant developments since the
time of the earliest cultivation. The
Fertile Crescent of Western Asia,
Egypt and India were sites of the
earliest planned sowing and
harvesting of plants that had
previously been gathered in the
wild. Independent development of
agriculture occurred in northern and
southern China, Africa's Sahel, New
Guinea, parts of India and several
regions of the Americas.[2]
Agricultural techniques such as
irrigation, crop rotation, the
application of fertilizers were
developed soon after the Neolithic
Revolution but have made
significant strides in the past 200
years. The Haber-Bosch method for
synthesizing ammonium nitrate
represented a major breakthrough
and allowed crop yields to
overcome previous constraints.
In the past century, agriculture in
the developed nations, and to a
lesser extent in the developing
world, has been characterized by
enhanced productivity, the
replacement of human labor by
synthetic fertilizers and pesticides,
selective breeding, and
mechanization. The recent history of
agriculture has been closely tied
with a range of political issues
including water pollution, biofuels,
genetically modified organisms,
tariffs, and farm subsidies.
Overview
Agricultural practices such as
irrigation, crop rotation, application
of fertilizers and pesticides, and the
domestication of livestock were
developed long ago, but have made
great progress in the past century.
The history of agriculture has
played a major role in human
history, as agricultural progress has
been a crucial factor in worldwide
socio-economic change. Division of
labour in agricultural societies made
commonplace specializations rarely
seen in hunter-gatherer cultures,
which allowed the growth of towns
and cities, and the complex
societies we call civilizations. When
farmers became capable of
producing food beyond the needs
of their own families, others in their
society were free to devote
themselves to projects other than
food acquisition. Historians and
anthropologists have long argued
that the development of agriculture
made civilization possible.
According to geographer Jared
Diamond, the costs of agriculture
were: "the average daily number of
work hours increased, nutrition
deteriorated, infectious disease and
body wear increased, and lifespan
shortened."[3]
Prehistoric origins
Forest gardening, a plant-based
food production system, is thought
by one researcher to be the world's
oldest agroecosystem.[4] Forest
gardens originated in prehistoric
times along jungle-clad river banks
and in the wet foothills of monsoon
regions. In the gradual process of a
family improving their immediate
environment, useful tree and vine
species were identified, protected
and improved whilst undesirable
species were eliminated. Eventually
superior foreign species were
selected and incorporated into the
family's garden.[5]
Evidence of plant cultivation dating
from 23,000 years ago has been
found at the Ohalo II site.[6]
Neolithic
Further information: Neolithic
Revolution
Threshing of grain in
ancient Egypt
The Fertile Crescent of Western Asia
first saw the domestication of
animals, starting the Neolithic
Revolution. Between 10,000 and
13,000 years ago, the ancestors of
modern cattle, sheep, goats and
pigs were domesticated in this area.
The gradual transition from wild
harvesting to deliberate cultivation
happened independently in several
areas around the globe.[7]
Agriculture allowed for the support
of an increased population, leading
to larger societies and eventually
the development of cities. It also
created the need for greater
organization of political power (and
the creation of social stratification),
as decisions had to be made
regarding labor and harvest
allocation and access rights to water
and land. Agriculture bred
immobility, as populations settled
down for long periods of time,
which led to the accumulation of
material goods.[8]
Early Neolithic villages show
evidence of the ability to process
grain, and the Near East is the
ancient home of the ancestors of
wheat, barley and peas. There is
evidence of the cultivation of figs in
the Jordan Valley as long as 11,300
years ago, and cereal (grain)
production in Syria approximately
9,000 years ago. During the same
period, farmers in China began to
farm rice and millet, using man-
made floods and fires as part of
their cultivation regimen.[7] Fiber
crops were domesticated as early as
food crops, with China
domesticating h**p, cotton being
developed independently in Africa
and South America, and the Near
East domesticating flax.[9] The use
of soil amendments, including
manure, fish, compost and ashes,
appears to have begun early, and
developed independently in several
areas of the world, including
Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley and
Eastern Asia.[10]
Roman harvesting machine
Squash was grown in Mexico nearly
10,000 years ago, while maize-like
plants, derived from the wild
teosinte, began to be seen at
around 9,000 years ago. The
derivation of teosinte into modern
corn was slow, however, and it took
until 5,500[7] to 6,000 years ago to
turn into what we know today as
maize. It then gradually spread
across North America and was the
major crop of Native Americans at
the time of European exploration.
[11] Beans were domesticated
around the same time, and together
these three plants formed the Three
Sisters nutritional foundation of
many native populations in North
and Central America. Combined
with peppers, these crops provided
a balanced diet for much of the
continent.[12] Grapes were first
grown for wine approximately 8,000
years ago, in the Southern Caucasus,
and by 3000 BC had spread to the
Fertile Crescent, the Jordan Valley
and Egypt.[13]
Agriculture advanced to Europe
slightly later, reaching the northeast
of the continent from the east
around 4000 BC. The idea that
agriculture spread to Europe, rather
than independently developing
there, has led to two main
hypotheses. The first is a "wave of
advance", which holds that
agriculture traveled slowly and
steadily across the continent, while
the second, "population pulse"
theory, holds that it moved in
jumps.[14] Also around 6000 years
ago, horses first began to be
domesticated in the Eurasian
steppes. Initially used for food, it
was quickly discovered that they
were useful for field work and
carrying goods and people.[15]
Around 5,000 years ago, sunflowers
were first cultivated in North
America, while South America's
Andes region was developing the
potato.[7] A minor center of
domestication, the indigenous
peoples of the eastern United States
appear to have domesticated
numerous crops, including to***co.
[16]
Bronze and Iron Ages
Beginning around 3000 BC,
nomadic pastoralism, with societies
focused on the care of livestock for
subsistence, appeared independently
in several areas in Europe and Asia.
The main region was the steppes
stretching from the Great Hungarian
Plain to the Northeast China Plain,
where cattle, sheep, horses, and to a
lesser extent yaks and bactrian
camels provided sustenance. The
second was in Arabia, where one-
hu**ed camels were the main
animal, with sheep, goats and
horses also seen. The third area was
a band of societies in areas of
eastern and central Africa with a
tropical savannah climate. Cattle
and goats were found most often in
this area, with smaller numbers of
sheep, horses and camels. A fourth
area, more minor than the others,
was found in northern Europe and
Asia and was focused on reindeer
herding.[17]
Between 2500 and 2000 BC, the
simplest form of the plough, called
the ard, spread throughout Europe,
replacing the hoe. This change in
equipment significantly increased
cultivation ability, and affected the
demand for land, as well as ideas
about property, inheritance and
family rights.[18] Before this period,
simple digging sticks or hoes were
used. These tools would have also
been easier to transport, which was
a benefit as people only stayed
until the soil's nutrients were
depleted. However, as the
continuous cultivating of smaller
pieces of land became a sustaining
practice throughout the world, ards
were much more efficient than
digging sticks.[19] As humanity
became more stationary, empires,
such as the New Kingdom of Egypt
and the Ancient Romans, arose,
dependent upon agriculture to feed
their growing populations, and
slavery, which was used to provide
the labor needed for continually
intensifying agricultural processes.
Agricultural technology continued
to improve, allowing the expansion
of available crop varieties, including
a wide range of fruits, vegetables,
oil crops, spices and other products.
[20][21] China was also an
important center for agricultural
technology development during this
period. During the Zhou dynasty
(1666–221 BC), the first canals were
built, and irrigation was used
extensively. The later Three
Kingdoms and Northern and
Southern dynasties (221–581 AD)
brought the first biological pest
control, extensive writings on
agricultural topics and technological
innovations such as steel and the
wheelbarrow.[22]
In the ancient world, fresh products,
such as meats, dairy products and
fresh fruits and vegetables, were
likely consumed relatively close to
where they were produced. Less
perishable products, such as grains,
preserved foods, olive oil and wine,
were often traded over an extensive
network of land and sea routes. The
ancient trade in agricultural goods
was well established, with wine
traded in the Mediterranean region
in the 6th century BC and Rome
receiving extensive shipments of
grain as tax payments by the 2nd
century BC. Huge amounts of grain
were transported, mainly by sea,
and it was during this period that
the subsidization of grain farming
began, for the prevention of famine.
Ancient Rome was a major center
for agricultural trade. Trade routes
stretched from Britain and
Scandinavia in the west to India
and China in the east, and included
major crops, such as grain, wine and
olive oil (also a fuel for oil lamps),
as well as additional products,
including spices, fabrics and drugs.
[23]
In Ancient Greece and Rome, many
scholars documented farming
techniques, including the use of
fertilizers.[10] Much of what was
believed about farming and plant
nutrition at this time was later
found to be incorrect, but their
theories provided the scientific
foundation for the development of
agricultural theories through the
Middle Ages. Ideas about soil
fertility and fertilization remained
much the same from the time of
Greco-Roman scholars until the
19th century, with correspondingly
low crop yields.[10] By the time of
Alexander the Great's conquests
(330–323 BC), the role of horses
had developed, and they played a
huge role in warfare and
agriculture. Innovations continued
to be developed which allowed
them to work longer, harder and
more efficiently. By medieval times
they became the primary source of
power for agriculture, transport and
warfare, a position they held until
the development of the steam and
internal combustion engines.[15]
The Mayan culture developed
several innovations in agriculture
during its peak, which ranged from
400 BC to 900 AD and was heavily
dependent upon agriculture to
support its population. The Mayans
used extensive canal and raised
field systems to farm the large
portions of swampland on the
Yucatán Peninsula.[24][25]
Middle Ages
Agricultural calendar from a
manuscript of Pietro de
Crescenzi.
The Middle Ages saw significant
improvements in the agricultural
techniques and technology. During
this time period, monasteries spread
throughout Europe and became
important centers for the collection
of knowledge related to agriculture
and forestry. The manorial system,
which existed under different names
throughout Europe and Asia,
allowed large landowners significant
control over both their land and its
laborers, in the form of peasants or
serfs.[26] During the medieval
period, the Arab world was critical
in the exchange of crops and
technology between the European,
Asia and African continents. Besides
transporting numerous crops, they
introduced the concept of summer
irrigation to Europe and developed
the beginnings of the plantation
system of sugarcane growing
through the use of slaves for
intensive cultivation.[27] Population
continued to increase along with
land use. From 100 BC to 1600 AD,
methane emissions, produced by
domesticated animals and rice
growing, increased substantially.[28]
By 900 AD in Europe, developments
in iron smelting allowed for
increased production, leading to
developments in the production of
agricultural implements such as
ploughs, hand tools and horse
shoes. The plough was significantly
improved, developing into the
mouldboard plough, capable of
turning over the heavy, wet soils of
northern Europe. This led to the
clearing of forests in that area and a
significant increase in agricultural
production, which in turn led to an
increase in population.[29] A similar
plough, which may have developed
independently, was also found in
China as early as the 9th century.
[30] At the same time, farmers in
Europe moved from a two field crop
rotation to a three field crop
rotation in which one field of three
was left fallow every year. This
resulted in increased productivity
and nutrition, as the change in
rotations led to different crops
being planted, including legumes
such as peas, lentils and beans.
Inventions such as improved horse
harnesses and the whippletree also
changed methods of cultivation.[29]
Watermills were initially developed
by the Romans, but were improved
throughout the Middle Ages, along
with windmills, and used to grind
grains into flour, cut wood and
process flax and wool, among other
uses.[31]