English Language Training Centre

GRAMMAR. A1/A2/B1/B2. LIKE vs AS.

GRAMMAR. A1/A2/B1/B2. CAN/COULD/ BE ABLE TO.

VOCABULARY/PRONUNCIATION. A1/A2/B1/B2/C. HOMOGRAPHS.
Homograph of the Day: AGGREGATE

Same spelling, two pronunciations, two closely related meanings!

👉 Aggregate (noun) /ˈæɡrɪɡət/ → a total; a whole made up of different parts

✅ Example sentences:
▪︎The aggregate of the test scores was impressive.
▪︎In the aggregate, these small savings make a big difference.
▪︎The company reported an aggregate profit for the year.

👇 Aggregate (verb) /ˈæɡrɪɡeɪt/ → to collect or combine into a whole

✅ Example sentences:
▪︎The data were aggregated from several studies.
▪︎We aggregate customer feedback before making decisions.
▪︎The website aggregates news from different sources.

👉 Same spelling, different sound, different meaning — another clear example of an English homograph!

VOCABULARY/PRONUNCIATION. A1/A2/B1/B2/C. POLYSEMY.
Capital
IPA (same for all meanings):
/ˈkæpɪtl/

The word capital is polysemous — one word with several related meanings.

1. Capital = a city where government sits

This refers to the main city of a country or state, where the government is based and major decisions are made.

✅ Example:
Abuja is the capital of Nigeria.

2. Capital = wealth or assets

Here, “capital” means money or resources used to invest, run a business, or generate more wealth.

✅ Example:
She used her savings as capital to start the business.

3. Capital = an uppercase letter

This meaning refers to a large or upper-case letter used at the beginning of sentences, names, or important words.

✅ Example:
Always write proper nouns with a capital letter.

✍ How all meanings connect (Polysemy)
All meanings suggest importance or primacy:
Capital city → the most important city in a country

Capital (wealth) → primary resources used for growth

Capital letter → a letter given special importance in writing

At the core, capital refers to something central, principal, or of primary importance.

PRONUNCIATION. A1/A2/B1/B2/C1.
🇬🇧 British English IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet)

The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a system of symbols used to represent the exact sounds of speech.
It allows us to write words the way they are pronounced, rather than the way they are spelled.

In British English, particularly in Received Pronunciation (RP) (the standard accent of educated British English), there are 44 speech sounds (phonemes) — made up of 20 vowels and 24 consonants.

Each sound has its own unique symbol in the IPA.

1. Vowel Sounds (20 in total)

Vowels are sounds made without blocking the airflow in the mouth.
They are divided into monophthongs (pure vowels) and diphthongs (double vowels).

A. Monophthongs (12 pure vowels)

Short Vowels (7):

/ɪ/ – as in sit

/e/ – as in bed

/æ/ – as in cat

/ʌ/ – as in cup

/ɒ/ – as in hot

/ʊ/ – as in book

/ə/ – as in about (the schwa, the most common vowel in English)

Long Vowels (5):

/iː/ – as in see

/ɑː/ – as in father

/ɔː/ – as in law

/uː/ – as in food

/ɜː/ – as in bird

B. Diphthongs (8 gliding vowels)

/eɪ/ – say, day

/aɪ/ – my, time

/ɔɪ/ – boy, toy

/aʊ/ – now, cow

/əʊ/ – go, home

/ɪə/ – ear, near

/eə/ – air, care

/ʊə/ – pure, sure

2. Consonant Sounds (24 total)

Consonants are sounds made when the airflow is partly or fully blocked by the lips, tongue, or teeth.

A. Plosives (6)

/p/ – pen
/b/ – bat
/t/ – tea
/d/ – dog
/k/ – cat
/g/ – go

B. Fricatives (9)

/f/ – fish
/v/ – van
/θ/ – think
/ð/ – this
/s/ – sun
/z/ – zoo
/ʃ/ – shoe
/ʒ/ – measure
/h/ – hat

C. Affricates (2)

/tʃ/ – chair
/ʤ/ – jam

D. Nasals (3)

/m/ – man
/n/ – no
/ŋ/ – sing

E. Approximants (4)

/r/ – red
/j/ – yes
/w/ – we
/l/ – leg

🤔 Why IPA Is Important

It helps you pronounce words accurately.

It removes spelling confusion — because English spelling doesn’t always show real pronunciation.

It is used in dictionaries, language teaching, and phonetics studies worldwide.

VOCABULARY. A1/A2/B1/B2/C1. HOMOPHONES.
"Aloud" means loud enough to be heard. "Allowed" means permitted.

VOCABULARY. A1/A2/B1/B2/C1. POLYSEMY.Muchos verbos, principalmente 'phrasal verbs', son polisemicos (tienen dos o mas significados); se los aprende uno usándolos en los contextos adecuados.

PRONUNCIATION. A1/A2/B1/B2/C1.
Understanding English Consonants
This chart gives a clear snapshot of how English consonants are classified based on how airflow behaves during speech.

🔹 Consonants are divided into two main groups:

1️⃣ Obstruents
These sounds are produced by blocking or restricting airflow in the vocal tract.
They are typically sharper and more forceful.

Stops – complete blockage (e.g. /p, b, t, d/)

Fricatives – narrow passage causing friction (e.g. /f, s, v, z/)

Affricates – stop + fricative combined (e.g. /tʃ, dʒ/)

2️⃣ Sonorants
These are produced with free-flowing air and are generally more resonant.

Nasals – air passes through the nose (e.g. /m, n, ŋ/)
Liquids – smooth, flowing sounds (e.g. /l, r/)

Glides – vowel-like consonants (e.g. /j, w/)

This simple structure helps learners understand why consonants sound the way they do and is a great foundation for phonics, pronunciation, and phonetics lessons.

VOCABULARY. A1/A2/B1/B2/C1. POLYSEMY.
Volume
IPA (same for all meanings):
/ˈvɒljuːm/ (British English)

The word volume is polysemous — one word with several related meanings.

1. Volume = amount of space

This refers to the quantity of three-dimensional space that an object or substance occupies.

✅ Example:
The volume of the container is five litres.

2. Volume = loudness of sound

Here, “volume” means the level or strength of sound, especially how loud or quiet it is.

✅ Example:
Please turn down the volume.

3. Volume = a book in a series

This meaning refers to one book that is part of a larger set or collection, such as encyclopedias or novels.

✅ Example:
This dictionary comes in three volumes.

✍ How all meanings connect (Polysemy)
All meanings relate to quantity or measure:
Physical volume → amount of space
Sound volume → degree of loudness
Book volume → one measured part of a larger whole

At the core, volume refers to how much of something there is.

PRONUNCIATION. A1/A2/B1/B2/C1. HOMOPHONES.
To "wade" is to walk with effort through water or another liquid. To "weigh" is to find out how heavy something is.

PRONUNCIATION. A1/A2/B1/B2/C1. NASALISATION.
((Un ejercicio antes del choro sobre sonidos nasales: Con voz relajada, repite dos veces las frases "MI MAMÁ ME MIMA" y "NADA DE NENES PARA LA NENA" poniendo atención a tu voz y pronunciación; ahora repite dos veces la misma frase pero cerrando o apretando los orificios de tu nariz y compara tu voz y pronunciación de la frase con nariz destapada y nariz tapada. Hay sonidos que su articulación requiere del paso de aire por los conductos nasales y por eso los llaman 'nasals'))
Nasalisation (in phonetics)
Nasalisation is a phonetic process in which air flows through the nose as well as the mouth during the production of a sound. This happens when the velum (soft palate) is lowered, allowing nasal airflow.

🔹 Types of nasalisation
1️⃣ Nasal sounds
These are sounds that are always nasal because the velum is lowered.
Examples (English):
/m/ as in man
/n/ as in no
/ŋ/ as in sing

2️⃣ Nasalised vowels
A vowel becomes nasalised when it occurs next to a nasal consonant, usually before or after /m/, /n/, or /ŋ/.
Examples:
man → /mæ̃n/
ten → /tɛ̃n/
song → /sɒ̃ŋ/ (British English)
The tilde [~] placed over the vowel shows nasalisation.

🔹 Nasalisation in English
Nasalisation is not contrastive in English.
It does not change meaning.
It is therefore allophonic (a phonetic feature).
✔ man /mæn/ and [mæ̃n] mean the same thing.

🔹 Contrast with other languages
In some languages, nasalisation changes meaning.
French example:
beau /bo/ (beautiful)
bon /bɔ̃/ (good)
Here, nasalisation is phonemic.

GRAMMAR. A2/B1/B2/C1. REPORTED SPEECH.