𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝑺𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒔

How '-ing' verbs are made:

1. y ing = ying

play = playing
fly = flying
study = studying

2. e = (drop the e) ing
If the verb ends in an E we remove the E and add ING.

dance - dancing
fake = faking
rhyme = rhyming

3. ee ing = eeing

see = seeing
flee = fleeing
agree = agreeing

4. ie = ie (drop the ie) ing
If the verb ends in IE we change it to YING.

die = dying
lie = lying
tie = tying

5. c/v/c* = double final c ing
If the verb ends in a consonant vowel consonant, we double the final consonant and add ING.

run = running
put = putting
stop = stopping

6. If a two-syllable verb ends in a consonant vowel consonant, we do not double the final consonant when the stress is on the first syllable.

Infinitive - ING form
to happen - happening
to enter - entering
to offer - offering
to suffer - suffering

7. We do not double the final consonant when the verb ends in W, X or Y or when the final syllable is not emphasized.

Infinitive - ING form
to fix - fixing
to enjoy - enjoying
to snow - snowing

8. If the verb ends in a stressed vowel R, we double the final R and add ING.

Infinitive - ING form
refer - referring
defer - deferring

9. If the verb ends in an unstressed vowel R, we do not double the final R and add ING.

Infinitive - ING form
to offer - offering
to suffer - suffering
to whisper - whispering

10 Commonly confused words:

1. Further - about the degree
E.g. The first team has gone furthest in its analysis.

2. Farther - about distance
E.g. The farthest point from the sun.

3. Especially - particularly
E.g. He despised them all, especially Tom.

4. Specially - for a purpose
E.g. A new coat and hat, bought specially for your wedding.

5. Older - comparing ages of people
E.g. This building is older than that one.

6. Elder - comparing ages of the family members
E.g. My elder daughter is 11.

7. Altogether - completely, in total
E.g. I stopped seeing her altogether.

8. All together - all in one place
E.g. They arrived all together.

9. Beside - next to
E.g. He sat beside me in the front seat.

10. Besides - in addition to
E.g. I have no other family besides my parents.

Who works on a film?

1. Actor/ Actress
2. Director
3. Producer
4. Editor
5. Screenwriter
6. Composer
7. Make-up Artist
8. Set designer
9. Costume designer
10. Cinematographer

Types of genres:

1. Romance
2. Comedy
3. Drama
4. Thriller
5. Horror
6. Sci-fi
7. Action
8. Documentary
9. Foreign Language
10. Cult classic

Common film terms

1. Sequel
2. Dialogue
3. Soundtrack
4. Villain
5. Cameo
6. Trailer
7. Protagonist

Expressing Frustration:

1. I can't stand noun/gerund
E.g. I can't stand stupid people.

2. I can't bear noun/gerund
E.g. I can't bear moonless nights.

3. I can't put up with noun/gerund
E.g. I can't put up with her. She's really annoying.

4. noun/gerund annoys me
E.g. He annoys me.

5. noun/gerund bugs me
E.g. My niece bugs me.

6. noun/gerund gets on my nerves
E.g. The sound of my alarm clock gets on my nerves.

7. noun/gerund pi**es me off (slang)
E.g. People who show off all the time, p**s me off.

8. I can't stand it when sentence
E.g. I can't stand it when people are dishonest.

9. I can't bear it when...
E.g. I can't bear it when my feet are cold.

10. It annoys me when...
E.g. It annoys me when my roommate leave the lights on.

11. It bugs me when...
E.g. It bugs me when my phone runs out of battery.

12. It gets on my nerves when...
E.g. It gets on my nerves when someone does not come on time.

13. It pi**es me off when...
E.g. It pi**es me off when people waste food at restaurants.





𝑴𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒚𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒐𝒘𝒏 𝒆𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏. ✔︎

9 Ways to say 'I love you':
9 طُرُق لِقَوَّل "أَنَا أَحُبَّك":

1. I really like you, and you are the best thing that has ever happened to me.
أَحْبُّك حقاً وأنت أفضل شيءِ حَدثَ لي على الإطلاق.

2. You are adorable, and I love you!
أنت محبوب وأنا أَحبُّك!

3. I cannot stop thinking about you.
أنا لا أَستطيعُ التَوَقُّف عن التَفكير بشأنك.

4. I keep falling in love with you!
اسْتَمِر بِالْوُقُوع في حبّك!

5. My love for you is unconditional and eternal.
حبّي لَك غير مشروطُ وأبديُ

6. I adore you!
أَعْشقُك!

7. You are the love of my life!
أنت حبَّ حياتِي

8. You have made me a better person, I will always need you by my side.
جَعلتَني شخصَ أفضلَ، أنا سَأَحتاجُك دائماً إلى جانبِي.

9. I want to spend my whole life with you!
أُريدُ قضاء حياتِي كلها مَعك.

Mathematics Symbols:

- minus/negative

plus/positive

X multiplied by

÷ divided by

= equals

≠ is not equal to

≈ is approximately equal to

~ is equivalent to

≡ is identical with

± plus or minus - In mathematics, it generally indicates a choice of exactly two possible values, one of which is the negation of the other.

< less than

≤ less than or equal to

> greater than

≥ greater than or equal to

𝐶𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:

The cultural turn meant still another step forward in the development of the discipline(𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠). It was sketched by Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere in Translation - History - Culture, and quickly represented by the exchanges between translation studies and other area studies and concepts: gender studies, cannibalism, post-colonialism or cultural studies, among others.

The concept of cultural translation largely ensues from Homi Bhabha's reading of Salman Rushdie in The Location of Culture. Cultural translation is a concept used in cultural studies to denote the process of transformation, linguistic or otherwise, in a given culture. The concept uses linguistic translation as a tool or metaphor in analyzing the nature of transformation and interchange in cultures. "Nonetheless, despite the fact that translation brings cultures nearer, in each translation, there will be a definite deformation between cultures.".

𝑫𝒆𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑺𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒔:

Descriptive translation studies aims at building an empirical descriptive discipline, to fill one section of the Holmes map. The idea that scientific methodology could be applicable to cultural products had been developed by the Russian Formalists in the early years of the 20th century, and had been recovered by various researchers in Comparative Literature. It was now applied to literary translation. Part of this application was the theory of polysystems (Even-Zohar 1990) in which translated literature is seen as a sub-system of the receiving or target literary system. Gideon Toury bases his theory on the need to consider translations "facts of the target culture" for the purposes of research. The concepts of "manipulation" and "patronage" have also been developed in relation to literary translations.

✔︎ 𝐒𝐜𝐡𝐨𝐨𝐥𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐠𝐡𝐭:

The main schools of thought on the level of research have tended to cluster around key theoretical concepts, most of which have become objects of debate.

✔︎ 𝐄𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞:

Through to the 1950s and 1960s, discussions in translation studies tended to concern how best to attain "equivalence". The term "equivalence" had two distinct meanings, corresponding to different schools of thought. In the Russian tradition, "equivalence" was usually a one-to-one correspondence between linguistic forms, or a pair of authorized technical terms or phrases, such that "equivalence" was opposed to a range of "substitutions". However, in the French tradition of Vinay and Darbelnet, drawing on Bally, "equivalence" was the attainment of equal functional 𝚟𝚊𝚕𝚞𝚎 generally requiring changes in form. 𝙲𝚊𝚝𝚏𝚘𝚛𝚍's notion of equivalence in 1965 was as in the French tradition. In the course of the 1970s, Russian theorists adopted the wider sense of "equivalence" as something resulting from linguistic transformations.

At about the same time, the Interpretive Theory of Translation introduced the notion of deverbalized sense into translation studies, drawing a distinction between word correspondences and sense equivalences, and showing the difference between dictionary definitions of words and phrases (word correspondences) and the sense of texts or fragments thereof in a given context (sense equivalences).

The discussions of equivalence accompanied typologies of translation solutions (also called "procedures", "techniques" or "strategies"), as in Fedorov (1953) and Vinay and Darbelnet (1958). In 1958 Loh Dianyang's Translation: Its Principles and Techniques (英汉翻译理论与技巧) drew on Fedorov and English linguistics to present a typology of translation solutions between Chinese and English.

In these traditions, discussions of the ways to attain equivalence have mostly been prescriptive and have been related to translator training.

𝗣𝗣𝗨 Framework (Present - Practice - Use) :


This is a framework for designing speaking lessons. It is not the only one, but it is effective for helping create lessons that are organized, coherent, and lead to a clear lesson objective.


✔︎ The stages of a speaking lesson organized in this way are:

Present: During this phase, students understand the context being used, the form, meaning and use of the vocabulary, function(s), pronunciation point or grammar, and/or the speaking skills (stating an opinion, pausing while speaking, interrupting, etc.), which are the focus of the lesson. (Awareness)

Practice: Students practice the speaking skills and/or the language component of the lesson by doing tasks which:

* are designed to help students increase their accuracy or correctness.

* move from students having no choice of what to say (repetition or drills) to more, but still limited, choice of the form, meaning, or use of the skill or language they use in the activity. (Accuracy)

Use: Students use the language or skill to complete a communicative task similar to an activity they will or may do 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞 the classroom. (Fluency)

1. By --> بواسطة
I usually go to work by bus.
عادة ما أذهب للعمل بواسطة الحافلة.

2. By --> عبر
They will contact me by email.
سوف يراسلونني عبر الإيميل.

3. By --> بالقرب من
We bought a new house by the sea.
اشترينا منزلا جديدا بالقرب من البحر.

4. By --> ب
I am head by 30 points
أنا متقدم عليك بثلاثين نقطة

5. By --> بحلول
I will have arrived by Friday
سوف أصل بحلول يوم الجمعة

6. By --> عن طريق
I learned English by practice
تعلمت الانجليزية عن طريق التمرن.

7. By --> بعد / تلو
Please, enter one by one
رجاء أدخلو واحدا تلو الآخر

8. By --> طبقا ل
We are playing by rules
نحن نلعب طبقا للقواعد.

𝐇𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐓𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐒𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐢𝐞𝐬:

𝐄𝐚𝐫𝐥𝐲 𝐒𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐢𝐞𝐬:

Historically, translation studies has long been 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐜𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 (telling translators how to translate), to the point that discussions of translation that were not prescriptive were generally not considered to be about translation at all. When historians of translation studies trace early Western thought about translation, for example, they most often set the beginning at 𝐂𝐢𝐜𝐞𝐫𝐨's remarks on how he used translation from Greek to Latin to improve his oratorical abilities—an early description of what 𝐉𝐞𝐫𝐨𝐦𝐞 ended up calling sense-for-sense translation. The descriptive history of interpreters in Egypt provided by 𝐇𝐞𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐨𝐭𝐮𝐬 several centuries earlier is typically not thought of as translation studies—presumably because it does not tell translators how to translate. In China, the discussion on how to translate originated with the translation of Buddhist sutras during the Han Dynasty.

- 𝐂𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐬 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐚𝐧 𝐚𝐜𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐦𝐢𝐜 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐢𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞:

In 1958, at the Second Congress of Slavists in Moscow, the debate between linguistic and literary approaches to translation reached a point where it was proposed that the best thing might be to have a 𝐬𝐞𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐬𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞 that was able to study all forms of translation, without being wholly within Linguistics or wholly within Literary Studies. Within Comparative Literature, translation workshops were promoted in the 1960s in some American universities like the University of Iowa and Princeton. During the 1950s and 1960s, systematic linguistic-oriented studies of translation began to appear. In 1958, the French linguists Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet carried out a contrastive comparison of French and English. In 1964, 𝐄𝐮𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐞 𝐍𝐢𝐝𝐚 published 𝐓𝐨𝐰𝐚𝐫𝐝 𝐚 𝐒𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐓𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠, a manual for Bible translation influenced to some extent by Harris's transformational grammar. In 1965, J. C. 𝐂𝐚𝐭𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐝 theorized translation from a linguistic perspective. In the 1960s and early 1970s, the Czech scholar Jiří Levý and the Slovak scholars Anton Popovič and František Miko worked on the stylists of literary translation.

These initial steps toward research on literary translation were collected in James S. Holmes' paper at the Third International Congress of Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In that paper, "The name and nature of translation studies", Holmes asked for the consolidation of a separate discipline and proposed a classification of the field. A visual "map" of Holmes' proposal would later be presented by Gideon Toury in his 1995 "Descriptive Translation Studies and beyond ".

Prior to the 1990s, translation scholars tended to form particular schools of thought, particularly within the prescriptive, descriptive, and Skopos paradigms. Since the "cultural turn" in the 1990s, the discipline has tended to divide into separate fields of inquiry, where research projects run parallel to each other, borrowing methodologies from each other and from other academic disciplines.