M. Brway Englizi

12/08/2025

01/11/2024

(تیۆری زانینی ئەفلاتون)
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ئەفلاتون لە زۆرێک لە دیالۆگەکاندا لە نێوان جۆرە جیاوازەکانیدا ئاماژە بە بابەتی مەعریفە دەکات و بەپێی بەهاکەی لە دەرخستنی حەقیقەتدا بە پلەی پلە ڕێکخراوە، هەروەها حەزی لە پێناسەکردنی هەندێک زانستی فەلسەفی و جیاکردنەوەی ئەو و جۆرەکانی تری زانینی هاوبەشە لە هاوچەرخەکانیدا. وە خاڵی دەستپێک لە تیۆری زانینی ئەفلاتونیدا لە وروژاندنی گومان لە جیهانی هەستەکاندا کورت دەکرێتەوە،... ئەفلاتون جۆرەکانی زانین لە زانستە جیاوازەکاندا لەسەر بنەمای جیاکاری میتافیزیکی خۆی لە نێوان جیهانی بینراو و جیهانی عەقڵانیدا ڕیزبەندی دەکات لە ئەوەی پێی دەوترێت مەعریفە کە بە گومان جیهانی هەستیاری بەکاردەهێنێت. سەبارەت بەو زانستەی کە نەبینراو و عەقڵانی لەگەڵ زانست یان عەقڵدا بەکاردەهێنێت،
ئەمانە چوار جۆرە مەعریفەن بە پێی دابەشکردنی: ١.

زانینی هەست: بریتییە لە تێگەیشتن لە هەستەکان، و بە نزمترین و پلەی یەکەمی زانین دادەنرێت.

زانینی مەعریفی: بریتییە لە حوکمدانی هەستەکان بە بەراوردکردنیان لەگەڵ یەکتر، و تێگەیشتن لە ڕەهەندە هاوبەشەکانی نێوانیان. وە یان ڕاستگۆیە یان درۆ دەکات.

زانینی عەقڵانی: ئەوەیە کە عەقڵ بە ئارگومێنت و گریمانە بەدەستی دەهێنێت، و پێشەکییەکە بۆ دڵنیایی ئەگەر لەسەر بنەمای گریمانە ڕاستگۆکان بێت.

مەعریفەی دڵنیا: بەرزترین و ئەوپەڕی پلەو پلەو پایەی مەعریفەیە، چونکە هۆشیاری پەندەکە و هۆکاری ناسینی حەقیقەتی ڕەهایە.

ئەوە لە (ئەفلاتون) دەستنیشانکردنی ئاستەکانی زانین و ئاماژەکانی هەر ڕیزبەندییەکەوە دەردەکەوێت، کە تایبەتمەندییەکی ورد هەیە بۆ ئاستی زانین کە تێیدا ئاماژەی بەوە کردووە کە زانینی هەستیاری نزمترین ئاستی زانینە بەو پێیەی ئاماژەیەکی تەواو نادات بۆ دەستڕاگەیشتن بە زانیاری. لێرەوە دەبێتە هۆی مەعریفەی زانستی، فۆرمێک لە گریمانەکانی توێژینەوە و ئەوەی پێویستە لێکۆڵینەوە و بەراورد بکرێت و پاشان گریمانەکردنی بناغە هاوبەشەکانی بۆ پشتڕاستکردنەوەی ڕاستگۆیی و بێباوەڕییەکەی. گرنگی بە ئاستی سێیەمی مەعریفە دەدا، بە باسکردنی ئەنجامی ڕاستگۆیی لە ناپاکی مەعریفیەوە بە بەکارهێنانی ئامرازەکانی مشتومڕ و خۆگرتن بە دەروون بۆ گەیشتن بە ئەنجامی کۆتایی، ڕەوا بوو. لێرەوە قەتیسکردنی ئەنجامی کۆتایی لە پلەی چوارەمی زانستدا، بەرزترین پلەیە چونکە دەگەڕێنێتەوە بۆ ڕاستگۆترین ئەنجام بۆ گەیشتن بە حەقیقەتی ڕەها.

بنەما و ئەوەی لە لێکۆڵینەوە فەلسەفییە سەرەتاییەکانیدا لەسەر مەعریفە دامەزرا، کۆتایی فەلسەفە نەبوو. گەڕان بەدوای ڕاستیدا هێشتا دەبێتە هۆی دۆزینەوەی ڕێگەی نوێ و هەمەچەشن. وە ئەوەی ئەو (ئەفلاتون) لە ڕاستی ڕەهادا دەریبڕیوە، ئاسان نییە پێی بگات، تا ڕژێمی زانین فراوانتر بێت، فرەلایەنی ڕاستی زیاتر دەردەکەوێت، ئەمەش دەبێتە هۆی سەختی زیاتر لە دەرکردنی بڕیاری ئازادکردنی ئەبستراکت.

ئەفسانەی ئەشکەوت

کە لە کتێبی کۆماردا دۆزرایەوە، کە لە ڕێگەیەوە ئەفلاتون هەوڵیدا لە تیۆری مەعریفەی خۆی نزیکمان بکاتەوە. : .

لەم ئەفسانەیەدا ئەفلاتون وامان لێدەکات مرۆڤەکان لە ئەشکەوتێکی تاریکدا لە نەرمی نینۆکەکانیانەوە بە زنجیر بەستراون، بەجۆرێک ئەم سنووردارکردنانە ڕێگریان لێدەکات کە بگەڕێنەوە دواوە یان لە ئەشکەوتەکە سەرکەونە دەرەوە. لەناو ئەشکەوتەکەدا شتێک هەیە کە لە پەنجەرەیەک دەچێت کە ڕووناکی لێیەوە دەرچووە لە خۆرەوە ڕووی لە ئەشکەوتەکە کردووە. لە نێوان ڕووناکی و پەنجەرەی ئەشکەوتەکەدا ڕێگایەک هەیە کە خەڵکانێک کە زۆر شتی هەڵدەگرن تێیدا تێدەپەڕن و کاتێک تیشکی ڕووناکی بەر ئەو شتانە دەکەوێت، سێبەرەکانیان لەسەر دیواری ناوەوەی ئەشکەوتەکە ڕەنگ دەداتەوە. دیلەکانی ناو ئەشکەوتەکە بەم شێوەیە تەنها سێبەرەکانیان لە کەلوپەلەکانی دەرەوەی ئەشکەوتەکە دەبینن. ڕوویدا کەسێک لە کۆت و بەندەکانی ڕزگاری بوو، بۆ ئەوەی بتوانێت لە ئەشکەوتەکە سەرکەوێتە دەرەوە، هەرچەندە بە هەناسە. ئەو تێگەیشتووە کە شتەکانی دەرەوەی ئەشکەوتەکە جیاوازن لە شتەکانی ناوەوەی، بەجۆرێک کە ئەم دووەمیان تەنیا سێبەر یان کۆپی یەکەمین. بۆیە ئەوەی بینیبووی بە نهێنی کرد و دواتر بڕیاریدا بگەڕێتەوە بۆ لای خەڵکی ناو ئەشکەوتەکە تا ڕاستی ئەو شتانەیان پێ بڵێت کە بینیویەتی، و ئاگاداریان بکاتەوە لە دۆخی ئەو هەڵە و وەهمانەی کە دەژین. بەڵام باوەڕیان پێی ناکەن هەوڵی کوشتنی دەدەن

پەندەکان دەقی:

سۆکرات: بیهێنە بەرچاوت کە پیاوان لە شوێنێکی نیشتەجێبوون لە ژێر زەویدا گیریان خواردووە کە شێوەی ئەشکەوتە، کونەکەی سەیری ڕووناکی دەکات، دواتر ڕێڕەوێک بەرەو ئەشکەوتەکە دێت. سێبەری ئەم کەسانە لەبەر ئەوەی نینۆکیان نەرم و نەرمە، قاچەکانیان بە زنجیرەوە بەستراوەتەوە و لە باوەشیان گرتووە، بۆ ئەوەی لە شوێنی خۆیان نەتوانن بجوڵێن، و هیچی تر نابینن جگە لەوەی کە دەکەوێتە بەر چاویان، کاتێک زنجیرەکان ڕێگریان لێدەکەن بە دەوری سەریاندا دەسوڕێنەوە. وە لە پشتیانەوە ئاگرێک هەیە کە لە دوورەوە لە شوێنێکی بەرزدا ئاگری گرتووە و لە نێوان ئاگرەکە و زیندانییەکان ڕێگایەکی بەرز هەیە. وە بیهێنە بەرچاوت بەدرێژایی ئەم ڕێگایە دیوارێکی بچووک، هاوشێوەی ئەو بەربەستانەی کە لە یاریگا ئەنیمەیشنی بووکەکاندا دەیدۆزینەوە، کە یاریزانەکان دەشارێتەوە لەکاتی نمایشکردنی یارییەکانیان.

گلوکۆن: تەنها دەمتوانی بیهێنمە پێش چاوم.

سۆکرات: وە بیهێنە بەرچاوت ئێستا، بەدرێژایی دیوارە بچووکەکە، پیاوان شتێکیان لەسەر ئامێرە پیشەسازییەکان هەڵگرتووە، بە دیوارەکەوە هەڵواسراوە. لەوانە فۆرمەکانی مرۆڤ، ئاژەڵ و هتد، کە لە بەرد، دار، یان کەرەستەی دیکە دروستکراون. ئاساییە کە لە نێو ئەمانەدا

27/07/2024

DRAMATIC MONOLOGUE:

A dramatic monologue is a type of poem or speech in which a single character speaks to a silent listener, revealing their thoughts and feelings. This form is particularly effective in exploring the speaker's personality, motivations, and circumstances.

Here are the key elements of a dramatic monologue:

1. SINGLE SPEAKER:

● VOICE: The entire monologue is delivered by one character, who dominates the narrative voice.

● THE AUDIENCE: The audience gains insight into the speaker’s mind and personal perspective, often revealing more than the speaker intends.

2. SILENT LISTENER:

● IMPLIED PRESENCE: While the listener does not speak, their presence is implied through the speaker's words and responses.

● INFLUENCE: The speaker’s dialogue and behavior are shaped by the presence of the listener, often addressing or reacting to them directly.

3. REVEALING CHARACTER AND SITUATION:

● PERSONAL REVELATIONS: Through the monologue, the speaker inadvertently reveals their own character, including flaws, desires, and motivations.

● SITUATIONAL CONTEXT : The speech often provides context about a particular situation or event, shedding light on the speaker’s actions or circumstances.

EXAMPLE: "My Last Duchess" By Robert Browning

In Robert Browning's "My Last Duchess," the Duke of Ferrara speaks to an emissary about a portrait of his deceased wife. Here’s how the elements of a dramatic monologue are utilized:

1. Single Speaker:The Duke is the sole speaker throughout the poem, providing a continuous narrative.

2. Silent Listener: The emissary’s presence is implied through the Duke’s references to him, such as "Will't please you sit and look at her?"

3. Revealing Character and Situation:
● Duke's speech reveals his controlling and jealous nature.
● He discusses his late wife’s behavior and his displeasure with her interactions, ultimately revealing that he had her killed: "I gave commands; Then all smiles stopped together."
●The Duke’s remarks about the next marriage negotiation and his prized art collection also highlight his arrogance and sense of entitlement.

A dramatic monologue effectively combines a single speaker’s narrative with the implied presence of a listener, revealing deep insights into the speaker’s character and situation. This form is a powerful tool for exploring complex personalities and psychological states within a compact and engaging narrative structure.

22/07/2024

THE SCARLET LETTER
BY NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE.

The Scarlet Letter is an 1850 romantic work of fiction in a historical setting, written by Nathaniel Hawthorne, and is considered to be his magnum opus.
Set in 17th-century Puritan Boston, Massachusetts during the years 1642 to 1649, it tells the story of Hester Prynne, who conceives a daughter through an affair and struggles to create a new life of repentance and dignity. Throughout the book, Hawthorne explores themes of legalism, sin, and guilt.

The Scarlet Letter was one of the first mass-produced books in the United States. It was popular when first published and is considered a classic work of American literature. The novel has inspired numerous film, television, and stage adaptations. Critics have described The Scarlet Letter as a masterwork, and novelist D. H. Lawrence called it a "perfect work of the American imagination".

SUMMARY:

The Scarlet Letter opens with a long preamble about how the book came to be written. The nameless narrator was the surveyor of the customhouse in Salem, Massachusetts. In the customhouse’s attic, he discovered a number of documents, among them a manuscript that was bundled with a scarlet, gold-embroidered patch of cloth in the shape of an “A.” The manuscript, the work of a past surveyor, detailed events that occurred some two hundred years before the narrator’s time. When the narrator lost his customs post, he decided to write a fictional account of the events recorded in the manuscript. The Scarlet Letteris the final product.

The story begins in seventeenth-century Boston, then a Puritan settlement. A young woman, Hester Prynne, is led from the town prison with her infant daughter, Pearl, in her arms and the scarlet letter “A” on her breast. A man in the crowd tells an elderly onlooker that Hester is being punished for adultery. Hester’s husband, a scholar much older than she is, sent her ahead to America, but he never arrived in Boston. The consensus is that he has been lost at sea. While waiting for her husband, Hester has apparently had an affair, as she has given birth to a child. She will not reveal her lover’s identity, however, and the scarlet letter, along with her public shaming, is her punishment for her sin and her secrecy. On this day Hester is led to the town scaffold and harangued by the town fathers, but she again refuses to identify her child’s father.The elderly onlooker is Hester’s missing husband, who is now practicing medicine and calling himself Roger Chillingworth. He settles in Boston, intent on revenge. He reveals his true identity to no one but Hester, whom he has sworn to secrecy. Several years pass. Hester supports herself by working as a seamstress, and Pearl grows into a willful, impish child. Shunned by the community, they live in a small cottage on the outskirts of Boston. Community officials attempt to take Pearl away from Hester, but, with the help of Arthur Dimmesdale, a young and eloquent minister, the mother and daughter manage to stay together. Dimmesdale, however, appears to be wasting away and suffers from mysterious heart trouble, seemingly caused by psychological distress. Chillingworth attaches himself to the ailing minister and eventually moves in with him so that he can provide his patient with round-the-clock care. Chillingworth also suspects that there may be a connection between the minister’s torments and Hester’s secret, and he begins to test Dimmesdale to see what he can learn. One afternoon, while the minister sleeps, Chillingworth discovers a mark on the man’s breast (the details of which are kept from the reader), which convinces him that his suspicions are correct.Dimmesdale’s psychological anguish deepens, and he invents new tortures for himself. In the meantime, Hester’s charitable deeds and quiet humility have earned her a reprieve from the scorn of the community. One night, when Pearl is about seven years old, she and her mother are returning home from a visit to a deathbed when they encounter Dimmesdale atop the town scaffold, trying to punish himself for his sins. Hester and Pearl join him, and the three link hands. Dimmesdale refuses Pearl’s request that he acknowledge her publicly the next day, and a meteor marks a dull red “A” in the night sky. Hester can see that the minister’s condition is worsening, and she resolves to intervene. She goes to Chillingworth and asks him to stop adding to Dimmesdale’s self-torment. Chillingworth refuses.Hester arranges an encounter with Dimmesdale in the forest because she is aware that Chillingworth has probably guessed that she plans to reveal his identity to Dimmesdale. The former lovers decide to flee to Europe, where they can live with Pearl as a family. They will take a ship sailing from Boston in four days. Both feel a sense of release, and Hester removes her scarlet letter and lets down her hair. Pearl, playing nearby, does not recognize her mother without the letter. The day before the ship is to sail, the townspeople gather for a holiday and Dimmesdale preaches his most eloquent sermon ever. Meanwhile, Hester has learned that Chillingworth knows of their plan and has booked passage on the same ship. Dimmesdale, leaving the church after his sermon, sees Hester and Pearl standing before the town scaffold. He impulsively mounts the scaffold with his lover and his daughter, and confesses publicly, exposing a scarlet letter seared into the flesh of his chest. He falls dead, as Pearl kisses him.Frustrated in his revenge, Chillingworth dies a year later. Hester and Pearl leave Boston, and no one knows what has happened to them. Many years later, Hester returns alone, still wearing the scarlet letter, to live in her old cottage and resume her charitable work. She receives occasional letters from Pearl, who has married a European aristocrat and established a family of her own. When Hester dies, she is buried next to Dimmesdale. The two share a single tombstone, which bears a scarlet “A.”

21/07/2024

GREAT AMERICAN POETS

American poetry, with its rich tradition and diversity, has been shaped by the works of many great poets who have left an indelible mark on the literary scene. In the vast treasury of American poetry, ten poets stand out:
Edgar Allan Poe, Walt Whitman, Emily Dickinson, Ralph Waldo Emerson, T. S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, Robert Frost, James Baldwin, Langston Hughes, and Louise Glück.

1. Edgar Allan Poe:

Edgar Allan Poe is one of the pioneers of American poetry, known for his dark and mysterious themes. His style is characterized by a somber melody and complex rhythm. Poe often explored themes of death, love, and madness, best illustrated in poems such as "The Raven" and "Annabel Lee." His influence on French Symbolists was immense, as they adopted his ideas about emotion and atmosphere. Poe's work is marked by rich symbolism and tense narratives, often portraying the inner world of his characters.

2. Walt Whitman:

Walt Whitman revolutionized American poetry with his collection "Leaves of Grass," celebrating individuality and democracy. His free verse and expansive poetic form contributed to the widening of poetic expression. Whitman's belief in the universality of human experiences makes him one of the most important American poets, and his works often explore themes of freedom, nature, and community.

3. Emily Dickinson:

Emily Dickinson, known for her introspective style, employed a brief and concise form. Her poems frequently address themes of death, love, and identity, utilizing unique metaphors and unconventional punctuation. Dickinson often explored inner dilemmas and emotions, with her most famous poems, such as "Because I could not stop for Death" and "Hope is the thing with feathers," being deeply emotional and philosophical.

4. Ralph Waldo Emerson:

Ralph Waldo Emerson, as one of the leading transcendentalists, emphasized the importance of individualism and nature. His poetry often reflects philosophical ideas about the connection between man and the universe. His works, including Poems (1847), Representative Men (1850), The Conduct of Life (1860), and English Traits (1865), invite readers to introspection and personal growth, laying the foundation for American romanticism.

5. T. S. Eliot:

T. S. Eliot, one of the most significant modernists, is known for his complex structures and intertextuality. His poem "The Waste Land" explores themes of decadence and spiritual crisis following World War I. Eliot's style encompasses multilayered symbols and allusions, creating deeply contemplative and sometimes abstract images that challenge readers to reflect.

6. Ezra Pound:

Ezra Pound, a key figure in modernist poetry, is recognized for his imperative to "eliminate the superfluous" from poetry. His style is characterized by economy and precision, with notable works including "In a Station of the Metro," a poem published in 1913 that became a famous example of "Imagism." Pound's two-line poem focuses on clear images through precise, accessible language. Other important works include Cantos and Personae, which further highlight his innovative approach to poetry.

7. Robert Frost:

Robert Frost is a poet of nature and everyday life, whose works often reflect the American landscape and rural themes. His verses, such as "The Road Not Taken" and "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening," explore dilemmas and moral choices, frequently employing simple yet powerful language. Frost's poetry combines folk wisdom with profound philosophical questions.

8. James Baldwin:

James Baldwin, known for his fight for human rights, uses poetry as a means to explore identity and racial issues. His poems, such as "Staggerlee Wonder," "The Darkest Hour," "Paradise," and "The Giver," encompass themes of injustice and personal struggle. "The Giver" examines the inner world of an individual faced with difficult circumstances, emphasizing the importance of empathy and understanding in human relationships.

9. Langston Hughes:

Langston Hughes, one of the leading voices of the Harlem Renaissance, celebrates African American culture through his poetry. His style combines the rhythm of jazz with folkloric elements, exploring themes of identity and the struggle for equality. Poems such as "The Negro Speaks of Rivers" and "I, Too" reflect the strength and resilience of the African American community.

10. Louise Glück:

Louise Glück, a Nobel Prize laureate, is known for her introspective poetry that addresses themes of personal loss and identity. Her verses are often emotionally charged and reflective, with works like "The Wild Iris" exploring the complexity of human relationships and nature. Glück's style is characterized by precision and conciseness, allowing her to express deep thoughts powerfully.

Each of these poets contributes a unique stamp to American poetry, shaping its development through various styles and themes. Their influence is felt not only in America but across the globe, inspiring generations of poets to explore human nature, social issues, and universal truths through the art of poetry.

21/07/2024

Antony and Cleopatra
By William Shakespeare

Act I
This act serves to introduce the main characters — Antony, Cleopatra, and Octavius Caesar; it also outlines the main forces which motivate each of them. The first scene is set in Alexandria, where two of Antony's men, Demetrius and Philo, describe the lovers' relationship. Caesar appears in a later scene, and we see how he perceives Antony and Cleopatra's relationship. In addition, his comments about Antony reveal a great deal about his own character. We also have ample evidence in this act that Antony and Cleopatra are deeply in love, but Antony does not realize the tragic possibilities of their infatuation, yet he is torn by divided loyalties. In short, this first act sets out what the relationships are among the main characters, and it establishes the basic conflicts that dominate the rest of the play: first, Antony and Cleopatra and their love for one another; and second, Antony's rivalry with Caesar.

Act II

In this act, Shakespeare accelerates the inevitable final conflict between his primary characters. Pompey, an insurgent force against Rome, has become enough of a threat to the Roman Empire that the triumvirs are forced to form a truce in order to present a united front. Antony and Caesar decide to resolve the fighting among themselves; this new "alliance" is to be cemented by the marriage of Antony and Octavia, Caesar's sister. When Cleopatra finds out that Antony has married, she is devastated by the news. But she resolves not to give up Antony so easily. In the meantime, even while Antony pledges his loyalty to Octavia, his thoughts have returned to Egypt and Cleopatra.

Act III

Most of the main events of the play have their beginnings in this act. It begins with the continued efforts on Antony's part to work on behalf of Rome and regain his stature in the world of politics and war. But before long, he tires of the pursuit of power in Rome and decides to return to Egypt.

Octavia accompanies Antony to Athens, but she returns to Rome alone after Antony decides to return to Cleopatra. Octavia's disgrace gives Caesar sufficient reason to hate Antony even more than he already does, and he vows revenge. Octavia's discovery that Antony is glorifying Cleopatra and her children, one of them the illegitimate son of Julius Caesar, provides enough of an excuse for Caesar to declare that both Antony and Cleopatra are traitors. War begins, and Antony's forces are defeated; the rest of the play focuses, thus, on the aftermath of this battle and its effect on the love between Antony and Cleopatra.

Act IV

Antony is at first despondent over his defeat. He places the blame on Cleopatra, who fled with her ships. He jeers that she will desert him for Caesar, just as some of his troops already have. She convinces him that he is wrong, and they courageously make one last attempt to defeat Caesar. They win a battle, but their victory is short-lived, and finally they are absolutely defeated. Again, Antony doubts Cleopatra's loyalty, and so she flees to her monument, the tomb where her body is to be buried after her death. She hopes to make Antony see the error of his doubts about her by sending him word that she is dead. Antony suffers great remorse and falls upon his sword. He does not die immediately, however, and he is taken to the monument, where Cleopatra is waiting for him. They spend his final moments together, and Cleopatra is left to face the Romans alone.

Act V

This final act concentrates on Cleopatra's last hours, as she negotiates with the Roman victors. Caesar has promised that she will be treated with honor in Rome, but she has good reason not to believe him. One of Caesar's officers, Dolabella, warns her not to put her faith in Caesar's promises. Cleopatra resolves to die rather than be taken captive to Rome, and she and her women have a basket of poisonous snakes smuggled to them in order to commit su***de. Thus, both Antony and Cleopatra die and they ultimately deprive Caesar's final victory of its full glory, as he finally acknowledges.

20/07/2024

A FAREWELL TO ARMS
BY ERNEST HEMINGWAY

A Farewell to Arms is a novel by American writer Ernest Hemingway, set during the Italian campaign of World War I. First published in 1929, it is a first-person account of an American, Frederic Henry, serving as a lieutenant (Italian: tenente) in the ambulance corps of the Italian Army. The novel describes a love affair between the American expatriate and an English nurse, Catherine Barkley.

The novel has been adapted a number of times: initially for the stage in 1930; as a film in 1932, and again in 1957; and as a three-part television miniseries in 1966. The film In Love and War, made in 1996, depicts Hemingway's life in Italy as an ambulance driver in events prior to his writing of A Farewell to Arms.

SUMMARY:

A Farewell to Arms is narrated by an American, Lieutenant Frederic Henry, driving ambulances for the Red Cross in Italy during World War I. The story of the novel is a memory of the events and is narrated in past tense. It never reveals the narrator’s current accounts, where is he now or what he is doing or his age etc. The novel leaves us wondering and speculate about it. The novel also doesn’t even give us the years during which it occurs. It only mentions battles of WWI. Through the battles and carefully examining other information given, we do understand that the novel is set between 1916 and 1918.

In Book One, Mr. Henry meets Catherine Barkley, an English V.A.D nurse in Gorizia, Italy, where the Red Cross hospital he works for is located. They briefly begin a romantic relationship, but when Mr. Henry is wounded during a battle, he’s sent to a hospital in Milan.

In Book Two, Mr. Henry arrives at the American hospital in Milan, and we soon learn that his first name is Frederic and his last name is Henry. Catherine arrives promptly, and when Frederic sees her, he realizes he loves her. They begin a beautiful love affair over the course of about three months, while Frederic recovers from his injury and drinks lots and lots.

When Catherine tells Frederic she’s three months pregnant, they plan to vacation for six weeks while he completes his convalescent leave. But when Miss Van Campen, the head of the hospital, gets fed up with his drinking and brash tone, she revokes his leave and Frederic is ordered back to Gorizia. On Frederic’s last night in Milan, he and Catherine get a hotel room together, and spend a few hours there, eating, drinking, and talking. Then Frederic catches the midnight train. Catherine and Frederic don’t know if they will ever see each other again.

In Book Three, Frederic goes back to Gorizia and becomes involved in the Italian retreat from Caporetto. The ambulances Frederic and his crew are driving get stuck in the mud, and they eventually have to abandon them. Two soldiers had been riding with Frederic and his crew, and when they refuse to help free the vehicles from the mud, Frederic shoots at them, killing one. According to information we received in Book Two, this is the first time Frederic has killed a man. When it looks like he must either escape or be killed, Frederic flees from the retreat, and deserts his post in the army.

In Book Four, Frederic goes back to Milan to look for Catherine. He learns she is in Stresa (a town in Italy). After borrowing some civilian clothes from a friend, he heads in that direction. Miraculously, he finds Catherine and they are reunited!

Catherine and Frederic spend a few days together happily. Then, in the middle of the night, they learn that Frederic will be arrested for desertion in the morning. They make a bold and daring escape, by rowboat, to nearby Switzerland. They manage to convince the Swiss authorities that they are in Switzerland for the “winter sport,” and are allowed to live in Switzerland.

In Book Five, Frederic and Catherine rent a mountainside cottage and enjoy themselves until a month before the baby is due. Then they move to a hotel to be closer to the hospital. Catherine has an awful labor and undergoes a Cesarean operation. The baby is born dead, or dies shortly after its birth. Catherine dies soon after, of multiple hemorrhages. Frederic walks back to the hotel in the rain.

20/07/2024

WAITING FOR GODOT
BY SAMUEL BECKETT

Waiting for Godot is a play by Irish playwright Samuel Beckett in which two characters, Vladimir (Didi) and Estragon (Gogo), engage in a variety of discussions and encounters while awaiting the titular Godot, who never arrives. Waiting for Godot is Beckett's reworking of his own original French-language play, En attendant Godot, and is subtitled (in English only) "a tragicomedy in two acts".

The original French text was composed between 9 October 1948 and 29 January 1949. The premiere, directed by Roger Blin, was on 5 January 1953 at the Théâtre de Babylone, Paris. The English-language version premiered in London in 1955. In a poll conducted by the British Royal National Theatre in 1998/99, it was voted the "most significant English-language play of the 20th century".

SUMMARY:

Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot is a tragic play with two acts depicting the unbearable miserable condition of modern man. There are two tramps; Estragon and Vladimir. They are subject to an apparently endless wait expecting some sort of help from Godot but he does not come except for a vague promise that Godot will come tomorrow. Nothing is certain or clearer in the play.The scope of time seems quite disturbed because a tomorrow could mean a day, a year, a season or even a whole of one’s life in this play.

The play begins with the appearance of two tramps on a road with a single tree. Time is evening and the two of them express joy for having met again while none of them shows anything more than mere pretence in words. Estragon remains busy in either taking off his shoe or putting back it on because it hurts him. His shoe does not fit him well. And Vladimir keeps on discussing the chances of survival for human beings are very small. Both of them fight, argue, abuse each other but stay together:

"Don’t touch me! Don’t question me! Don’t speak to me! Stay with me!"

The playwright literally creates such a scope of nothingness in the life of the characters that:

"Nothing happens, nobody comes, nobody goes, it’s awful!."

The two tramps find themselves lost and their memory is very weak. They commit strange and odd things. They appear very shabby and poor. They seek repentance and want to change their condition but they feel they are unable to do so:

"Very likely. They all change. Only we can’t."

Lucky and Pozzo happen to cross the same road where the two tramps are sitting on a mound. Pozzo, a rich man, treats his servant Lucky no less than an animal. Every act of Lucky is considered as meant for pleasing Pozzo. His labours mean nothing to Pozzo, a symbol of inhuman behaviour attributed to modern man. This visit also exposes the financial weakness of the two tramps that are willing to eat even the bones thrown by rich Pozzo. The fight for bones may also be considered the gloomy failure of human civilization.

"The tears of the world are a constant quantity. For each one who begins to weep, somewhere else another stops."

The characters seem to have either no memory or a very weak sense of it. Pozzo does not remember to have met the two tramps before:

"I don’t remember having met anyone yesterday. But tomorrow I won’t remember having met anyone today. So don’t count on me to enlighten you."

The two tramps entertain themselves with conversation, dull, blank, boring as well as sensational words but they do nothing. They even talk about su***de but action is not meant for them. Probably, they mean nothing but to show the burden of existence: “To every man his little cross. Till he dies. And is forgotten.”

The two tramps keep on waiting for Godot who never comes; however, messenger comes from him giving the message that he would come tomorrow. And the two tramps believe: “We always find something to give us the impression we exist” and they also associate their state of being to the modern man’s existence:” But at this place, at this moment of time, all mankind is us, whether we like it or not”.