Translation across Arabic and English

Word order
Word order is a linguistic notion which concerns the order of the constituents of a given language. There are diversifications among languages in relation to word order as they can utilize different word orders. Some languages tend to follow a fixed word order to fulfill its grammatical relationships; others are more flexible in their word order. In this chapter, we will study the notion of word order across Arabic and English. English tends to employ a fixed word order: SVO, whereas Arabic is more flexible. Those languages of a flexible word order convey their grammatical information via morphological processes.
Constituents or syntactic units are the components of sentences, clauses or phrases. Each syntactic unit belongs to a given grammatical category and reflects a given grammatical function (Radford, 2009, p. 1). We will start discussing the structure of simple sentences. Most English sentences or clauses manifest the SVO word order. This means that the Subject comes before the Verb, which is followed by the Object. Examples are the following:
• I (S) bought (V) a new computer (O).
• She (S) doesn't like (V) dogs (O).
• Why did you (S) do (V) that (O)?
If we talk about the first example, ( I ) is a pronoun which functions as the subject, (bought) is a verb functioning as part of the predicate, and (a new computer) is a noun phrase functioning as the object and part of the predicate in this clause. In English, subjects and complements are the arguments of the verb.
To render the above examples into Arabic, we can say:
1. أشتريتُ حاسوبا جديدا.
2. هي لا تحبُ الكلابَ.
3. لمَ فعلتَ ذلك؟
In the first Arabic clause, we can start with the verb if it is a verbal clause. Interestingly, we have a pronoun affixed to the verb, which refers to the subject. Arabic requires a pronoun suffix after the verb, a suffix in agreement with the subject regarding number, gender and person. The second is a negative one, having two options to be rendered into Arabic: either we start with the subject or with the negative particle followed by the verb. If it starts with a pronoun, it is a nominal clause. The first part is called (MUBTADA') (Topic or as recently called 'Initial NP') and the second part is called (XABAR) (Comment or as recently called 'Report'). The report is basically of two types: either to start with a verb or with an NP or a non-verbal element. The third example illustrates an interrogative clause where both English and Arabic start with the question word. However, in Arabic, there is no operator (an auxiliary).
Out of the English SVO word order, we can extract certain patterns of the structure of English sentences. These include the patterns: SV, SVO, SVOO, SVC, SVOC, or just V (exemplifying the structure of imperative clauses). The same can be applied to Arabic. English clauses can be a little bit complicated when an indirect object (I) is added to the sentence or a complement of an object. In this case, the word order depends a.) on whether the direct and indirect objects are nouns or pronouns, and b.) on whether the indirect object is preceded by the word (to). Verbs that take two objects are called ' ditransitive verbs'. In the grammar of a lot of languages, the classification of verbs is highly necessary in relation to their relational aspects. Therefore, we can find, for example, the classification of verbs into transitive and intransitive. This classification is necessary in Arabic and English. The category of verb is the governor in any sentence. Here are examples where there are two objects:
1. I gave Ahmed a book.
2. I gave a book to Ahmed.
3. I gave it to him.

To render these clauses, we can hint at the Arabic verbs that take two objects. Such verbs include basically two types: verbs taking objects not taken from Topic and Comment, and those verbs taking objects taken from Topic and Comment. One example of the first type is the verb (أعطى ) (give) and examples of the second type include Verbs of Hearts (أفعال القلوب ) or more closely verbs that express mental processes. Therefore, we can get the following Arabic counterparts:
1. أعطيتُ أحمدَ كتابا.
2. أعطيتُ كتابا لاحمد.
3. أعطيتهُ له.

In English, subjects and objects can be followed by their complements. Consider the following illustrative examples:
1. John is handsome.
2. They chose John a monitor.

In the first version, the adjective (handsome) refers to the subject (John); therefore, it is its complement. In the second, we have the noun ( a monitor) as the complement of the object (John). Their Arabic counterparts can be as follows:
1. جون وسيم.
2. (هم) إختاروا جون مراقبا.

The first Arabic counterpart consists of two parts: Topic and Comment. Because it is a nominal clause, there is no linking verb. The second one can commence with the pronoun (هم) or with the verb which has the pronominal plural suffix ( و) which refers to the implied plural subject.
To every rule, there is an exception. Writers and speakers tend sometimes to employ different word order for special effects. You should realize that these exceptions exist, but not try to use them unless either they are extremely important in the context, or else you have fully mastered normal word order patterns. An example is the following:
1. Had they trained well, they might have won the match.
2. Never have I seen such a thriller.
Arabic has two basic categories of word order: SVO and VSO. Nominal clauses start with a noun or a pronoun. A nominal clause has its own semantic reference expressing states but not actions or events. That is to say, it is not related to verbs or the adverbs that play the role of verbs or their functions. We can sketch out the structure of the Arabic nominal clause below:

The Arabic Nominal

If the Comment is a clause, there is a referential pronoun related to the first Topic. It is an anaphoric reference. Consider the following examples:
امثلة:
1- الروايةُ حبكتها مثيرةٌ.
2- الولدُ أبوهُ مدرسٌ.
In these two examples, the Comment is a nominal clause. In the first example, the Comment is (حبكتها مثيرة ) (its plot is exciting), is also of two parts: Topic and Comment. In the second Theme (حبكتها ) contains an enclitic pronoun referring to the first Topic (الرواية ) (the novel). This example can be rendered into English as follows:
(The novel plot is exciting)
We can see that the English version is a simple sentence where the Arabic nominal clause that occupies the position of the Comment becomes a noun clause consisting of a modifying adjective and a noun. Literally, we can render the same example as:
(The novel has a plot which is exciting)
Here, the Comment is rendered as a relative clause whose basic function is to modify a preceding noun. Thus, we can say that the basic function of a clausal Comment is to modify the preceding Theme. We can also have another rendering, getting the following: (As for the novel, its plot is exciting).
The same can be applied to the second example (الولد ابوه مدرس ) where the Comment is also a nominal clause (أبوه مدرس ) which has a pronominal enclitic referring to the first Topic (الولد). The whole sentence can be rendered into English as:
(The boy's father is a teacher)
It can be recognized that the two Themes where amalgamated together through the possession relationship. Literally speaking, it can be reproduced as (The boy has a father who is a teacher) where the main verb is of possession, and again we have a relative clause identifying the intended entity ( the father). Another rendering can be: (As for the boy, his father is a teacher). Now let's have a look at Comments which are verbal clauses:

3- الكتابُ الفتهُ زينبُ .
4- الكتابُ قرأتهُ انا.

In the third example, the Comment starts with the verb (ألفته ), where there is a referential pronoun referring to the Theme (الكتاب ). Literally speaking, it can be rendered as: (As for the book, it was written by Zaynab). In English, we can simply produce a simple as the following:
(The book was authorized by Zainab)
It is a passive sentence. The same is true for the fourth example, getting the following passive sentence: (The book was read by me) or it can be in the active voice as (I read the book). In fact, it is a matter of emphasis. It concerns the information structure in both Arabic and English. In other words, it is something related to what speakers encode as instructions directed to the addressee. It is a way of processing the message to be conveyed. A given sentence encapsulates given and new information. Generally speaking, in English what is given information occurs initially, but new information is backgrounded. But, in Arabic, it is just the opposite: Arabic thematizes what is new.
There are cases in which the Comment in Arabic is thematized obligatorily. If the Comment is an adverbial phrase and the Topic is indefinite. Take the following example: ((عندي كتابٌ. The first element in this clause contains an adverbial particle followed by a pronominal possessive suffix ( - ي) and the second element is the backgrounded Topic ( كتاب). Its English counterpart is ( I have a book). Another possibility by which the Comment occurs first in a clause is when it is a prepositional phrase and again the Topic is indefinite as in the following example:
( في الدار رجل )
As shown, the Comment (في الدار) is foregrounded because it is a prepositional phrase and the Topic (رجل) is an indefinite noun. We can translate this into English as (There is a man in the house).
Sometimes, the Comment is restricted by the restriction particle (الا) or (انما), in such a case the Comment is also foregrounded as in the following example:
(ما ذكيٌ الا عليٌ)
The origin of this clause is a nominal clause which is ((علي ذكي (Ali is clever) where the Topic is (علي) (Ali). In English, we can produce a similar version, getting the following: (No one is clever except Ali). Furthermore, there are cases where the Topic carries a possessive pronoun. In such a case, the Topic can take up the position a second element, i.e. it is backgrounded. Consider the following example:
(في الغرفة حقيبتها )
In this example, the normal version is (حقيبتها في الغرفة) (Her bag is in the room) where the item (حقيبتها ) is the Topic, but it is postponed due to the possessive enclitic attached to it and the Comment is a prepositional phrase which is (في الغرفة).
Another important shifting of the position of the Topic and Comment is when the Topic is an interrogative particle. Take the following example:
(متى السفر )
Here, the Topic is (السفر ) (travel) which is backgrounded because the Comment is a question word which is (متى) (when). Literally, we can render this interrogative clause as (When is the travel?) or we can put it as (When will you travel?). The English version is the normal word order for such clauses.
There are cases in Arabic where the Comment is foregrounded optionally. For example, if the Comment is an adverb of place and the Topic is a definite noun. Consider the following:
(في قاعة الاجتماع المدير)
(In the meeting hall the boss is)
Here, the fronting of the Comment (في قاعة الاجتماع) (in the meeting hall) is not obligatory. Thus, it is quite normal and acceptable to say:
(المدير في قاعة الاجتماع)
It can be rendered into English as (The boss is in the meeting hall). For the sake of emphasis, in English an adverb of place can be placed in initial position so as to get more prominence, saying (In the meeting hall, the boss is).
It is common knowledge in Arabic that both the Topic and Comment take up the nominative case. However, when a defective verb such as (كان) is introduced, there is a change in the case marking of both elements in a nominal clause. Let's take the following example: (سعدٌ غائبٌ ) (Saad is absent). If we introduce the defective verb (كان), this nominal clause turns into (كان سعدٌ غائباً ) where the Topic remains nominative but its Comment is accusative. This clause can be rendered into English as (Saad was absent) where the time reference changes into the past. But, if use another particle such as (ان ), we get the opposite as far as case marking is concerned. That is to say, the Topic will be in the accusative case and the Comment will remain nominative. The same clause can utilized again to get the following:
(انَّ سعداً غائبٌ )
This particle (انّ) is utilized for the sake of emphasis. To translate it into English, we get the following: (Saad is surely absent), where the time reference does not change.
Once again, to recapitulate things, Arabic is more flexible than English regarding the distribution of its constituents in a given sentence. Consider the following examples:
1- أحمد غائب.
2- كان احمد غائباً.
3- غائباً كان أحمد.
4- ان أحمد غائباً.
Word order is a basic notion in any language which gives the normal structure of clauses in any language. Arabic and English differ in their word order . Arabic basically has two versions of its word order: SVO and VSO. But English has only one SVO . Any deviation in this normal word order gives us a marked theme . In word order terminology, a 'Theme' means the first element in the sentence in both languages .
In the first example we have a normal nominale clause which means it is unmarked, consesting of Topic and Comment. Both parts are nominative in case. We can translate, saying:
Ahmed is absent.
The English counterpart also has a basic word order, having the following elements:
Subj. +V.+C (unmarked)
In the Second example, we have a linking verb (كان) which incurs changes in the structure of the sentence. The first change is shifting the tense into past and there are changes that effect the Topic and Comment by changing the case endings. In other words, the Topic becomes the noun of the verb (holding the nominative case), but the Comment becomes accusative. What is important is that the value of the Comment is no longer available due to the use of (كان). It means that the use of linking verbs makes changes in the normal structure of the sentence:
Ahmed was absent (normal)
In the third example, we can see that the Comment is thematized in order to give prominence, even in our translation, we have to start with the complement. In both cases, we have a marked theme. It can be translated as:
Absent, Ahmed was.
In the last example, we have an unphatic partical which amphasis the whole clause. It also makes changes in the Topic and Comment case endings. In our translation, we use an adverb of emphesis at the beginning of the clause, saying:
Trully , Ahmed is absent.
Unlike the nominal clause, a verbal clause comprises a verb as its predicate, incorporating a place and time reference. As mentioned above, a nominal clause has two parts: Topic and Comment. The Comment completes the meaning of the Topic. Not only nouns can occupy the position of these two parts. They can be pronouns, active participles, passive participles, adjectives and other related items. Consider the following examples:

1. القراءةُ مفيدةٌ.
2. أ مرتفعٌ البناء؟
ما حَسنٌ الظلمُ.

In the first example, we have two nouns taking up the positions of the Topic and Comment. To render the whole nominal clause into Arabic, we get the following (Reading is useful). We can see that in the Arabic nominal clause, the Topic is the governed item and the Comment is the governor. In fact, the Topic is considered as the given information, but the Comment is the new information. In the second, the active participle (مرتفع) (rising) is the Topic here. The active participle behaves like a verb as in this example. It takes (البناء) as its subject here, functioning as the comment in this clause. In the third example, we have what is called an adjective resembling a verb, which is here (حَسن) (nice). It functions as the topic in this clause and the item (الظام) is the Comment. The above examples can be translated into English as follows:

1. Reading is useful.
2. Is the construction rising up?
3. Oppression is not good.

In the renderings of the second and the third examples, what is Topic in Arabic does not become the subject in English as usual. The second version is an interrogative clause, whereas the third is negative.

Now, consider the following example:
4. أن تجتنبَ الغضبَ أقرب للسلامة.

In this example, the Topic is the infinitive part with its complement (أن تجتنب الغضبَ ) (To avoid) is the Topic, a case which shows that Arabic nominal clauses can start with different parts of speech to represent the Topic, let alone the Arabic Comment. This example can be rendered into English as (To avoid anger is better for your safety).

The Comment can be a single noun, a pronoun, a phrase, or a clause. Consider the following illustrative examples:
1. الفراتُ نهرٌ.
2. الاثارُ غاليةٌ (هي).
3. الصيفُ يشتدُ حرهُ.
4. الربيعُ جوهُ معتدلٌ.
5. الرحلةُ يوم الخميس.
6. الحديقةُ أمام البيت.

In the first example, we have a concrete noun (النهر) (river) as the Comment which is in the nominative case. Interestingly, if the Comment is a derived noun such as in the second (( غالية (expensive), there should be an implied nominative pronoun after it. The implied pronoun (هي) refers to the Comment. In the third and fourth example, the Comment is a clause: a verbal clause in the former (يشتد حرهُ) (its heat increases) and a nominal clause in the latter (جوهُ معتدلٌ) (its atmosphere is cool). In the last two examples, we have phrases taking up the position of the Comment: in the former it is an adverb of time (يوم الخميس ) ( on Thursday) but in the latter it is an adverb of place (أمام البيت ) (in front of the house). The six above examples can be rendered into English as:

1. Euphrates is a river.
2. Antiquities are expensive.
3. Summer is getting hotter.
4. The atmosphere of spring is cool.
5. The trip is on Thursday.
6. The garden is in front of the house.

We can easily notice that the English counterparts there is a linking verb that connects the two parts. What is Topic in Arabic becomes subject in English because these are affirmative statements.

In Arabic, it is not always imperative that nominal clauses start with their Topic. There are cases where the Comment obligatorily initiates the clause. These cases include the following:
1. if the Topic is an indefinite noun as in (على الطاولة ملعقة ) ( There is a spoon on the table).
2. if there is a pronominal suffix attached to the Topic that refers to the Comment as in (في السيارة صاحبها ) ( The owner of the car is in it).
3. if there is an exception such as (الا) particle separating the Topic and Comment as in (ما في البيت ألا ألاهل) ( There is nobody in the house except its dwellers).

In fact, there are pragmatic reasons behind which the Comment introduces a given nominal clause. Consider the following:
1. عراقيٌ أنا.
2. ناجحٌ زيدٌ.
3. مقتولٌ أحمد.

In the first example, the normal order is (أنا عراقي), but here the fronting of the Comment (عراقي ) is for showing pride. In the second, the fronting of the active participle (ناجح) is to show optimism where the speaker is conveying something pleasant; whereas in the last example, the fronting of the passive participle is to show pessimism where the speaker conveys something bad.

Because these nominal clauses have no verb, they have no time reference. They generally express existential and possessive relations. It is the context that is the crucial factor in deciding the time reference. However, if we want to refer to the past, there are particles that are used to achieve this function. One of these particles is the hollow verb (كان ) as in the following example:
1. كان الجوُ غائماً.

Here, we have a nominal clause introduced by a verb denoting the past tense. It can be translated as ( The sky was cloudy) or (It was cloudy). However, there are cases in which the verb (كان ) can refer to something unchanging and not restricted to time as in the Holy Quran Verse ( كان الله غفوراً رحيماً) (النساء , 96) where we have two items functioning as the Comment of (كان ), viz غفورا and رحيما . The meaning of (كان ) here is ( be still) which indicates something permanent and not temporary. Thus, when it is translated into English, we find that the equivalent is ( is) to indicated the unchanging characteristics of God. The above verse is rendered as (Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful) (Yusuf Ali, p. 97).

Grammar consists of two fields: morphology and syntax (Radford, 2009, p. 1). Arabic is a rich morphological language. That is why, its morphology plays a basic role in finalizing the grammatical meanings. Let's take the following pair of clauses:

1. زيدٌ شاعرٌ.
2. زيدٌ الشاعر.

Their English counterparts can be ( a. Zaid is a poet b. Zaid is the poet). The difference is clear cut: the first version has two parts where the second part is indefinite noun, but in the second version the second part is definite. The interpretation of the first is that Zaid is not the only person who can write poems, but in the second he is the only poet among others. That is, he is characterized as the only one who can be a poet. However, both clauses start with the Topic (زيد). Case marking in Arabic brings about amazing semantic and syntactic differences. Consider the following:
1. الكتابُ خيرُ صديق.
2. قرأتُ الكتابَ البارحة.

In the first example, the definite noun (الكتاب) represents the Topic having the nominative case which is the core of discourse in this clause, i.e. we are talking about it. Here, we are talking about the state of the noun (الكتاب) as being the best friend. In the second version, the same noun taking the accusative case is the object: it undergoes the process of reading by the subject ( I ) which is represented by the pronominal suffix ( ت ) attached to the verb.

What has been discussed so far concerns the structure of simple sentences, but there are other types of sentences in Arabic and English. In English, there are also compound and complex sentences (these will be studied in separate chapters). As for the former, we have two clauses coordinated by a coordinating conjunction such as (and, but , or). These coordinators can express a variety of semantic relations according to the context in which these coordinators are utilized. For example, the coordinator (and) can express (1) a general semantic relationship and (2) a result or a sequence. As for (but), it basically denotes (1) contrast and (2) concession. Sometimes these clauses are conjoined without using coordinators. If there is a coordinator, the sentence is called syndetic. However, if the coordinator is not available, it is called asyndetic. Illustrative examples are the following:

1. The employees were on strike, but their employers did not meet their needs.
2. She did not work hard; she failed the computer course.

In the first example, we have the coordinator (but) which joins two contrasting clauses. In the second, we do not have a coordinator; there is a just a semi-colon to join the two clauses. It is to be noted that coordinators introduce the second clause especially if the clause expresses a sequence or a result. Moreover, it is possible to omit the subject of the second clause if it is co-referential with the subject of the first clause as in (They bought the car and (they) travelled to London).

As for the complex sentences, they consist of main and subordinate clauses. Subordinate clauses in English are of different types: nominal, adverbial, relative, comparative, complementary and comment clauses. In Arabic, we have the same categorization. Nominal clauses can function as subject, object or complement. Take the following example:

1. What pleases the eye is beauty.
2. Beauty is what pleases the eye.

In the first clause, the nominal clause (in bold type) functions as the subject, whereas in the second version it functions as the object. These two examples can be rendered into Arabic as follows:
1. ما يسّرُ الناظرَ هو الجمالُ.
2. الجمالُ هو ما يسّرُ الناظرَ.

We can see the English nominal clause is introduced by the interrogative particle (what) whose Arabic equivalent is (( ما .

Adverbial clauses in English and Arabic include types such as time, place, condition, purpose, reason, result and manner clauses. Consider the following examples:

1. We stopped where the accident happened.
2. If she comes, I'll be happier.
3. Although he is a good player, he does not score a goal.
4. I was late because there was heavy jam.
5. She sings as if she were a symphony.
All the clauses in bold are relative clauses. Each serves a certain type and function. In (1), there is a clause of place introduced by the particle (where) whose Arabic equivalent is ( حيث). In (2), we have a conditional clause introduced by (if). In (3), a clause of concession is introduced by the particle (although) whose Arabic counterpart is (بالرغم من أن ). In (4), we have a clause of reason introduced by (because) where in Arabic we use the particle ((لانّ . The fifth example is a clause of manner where the particle (as if) is utilized. In Arabic, we can use ((كأن as a counterpart where the description involves her singing just like a symphony.
Relative clauses are introduced by relative pronouns used to modify a noun or a noun phrase. However, these introducing items in Arabic are called relative nouns categorized into specific (e.g. الذي , التي , الذين ) and generic (e.g. .من , ما ). These clauses are available both in Arabic and English. Consider the following examples:
1. The man who solved this complicated problem is Danish.
2. I wrote a paper about which there was a heated debate.
3. I sent you the email that explains the rationale behind my thesis.

The above examples can be rendered into Arabic as follows:

1. ألرجلُ الذي حلَّ المسألةَ المعقدةَ هو دنماركي.
2. كتبتُ بحثاٌ ( الذي) كان حولهُ جدلا ساخناً.
3. أرسلتُ لك أيميلاً (الذي) يوضحُ السبب وراء اطروحتي.

In the way of comparison, we will consider the translation of the following Quranic verse (Sura 3, verse 35):
(إني نذرتُ لك ما في بطني محررا ...)
( I have vowed to you what is in my womb to be dedicated ...)

First, the relative noun ( ما) can refer to an animate entity as it is clear in this verse. In the Arabic version, we have a relative clause introduced by the particle (ما ). Its English counterpart is a nominal clause introduced by the interrogative particle (what).

We can see that in both Arabic and English, these relative clauses are utilized to describe an entity. They serve as a modifying clause to that entity. These clause will be discussed in detail later.

“The word 'translation' comes, etymologically, from the Latin for 'bearing across'. Having been borne across the world, we are translated men. It is normally supposed that something always gets lost in translation; I cling, obstinately to the notion that something can also be gained.”
― Salman Rushdie, Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Criticism 1981-1991 “The word 'translation' comes, etymologically, from the Latin for 'bearing across'. Having been borne across the world, we are translated men. It is normally supposed that something always gets lost in translation; I cling, obstinately to the notion that something can also be gained.”
― Salman Rushdie, Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Criticism 1981-1991

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