20/11/2021
Scores of professional calling cards, Kīrtimukha of Sindhu Civilization, signify seafaring merchants, scribes, accountants
https://tinyurl.com/v9exu7ws
-- Wide distribution of professional calling cards of metal artificers, seafaring merchants substantiates major contributions made by Ancient India to achieve the Bronze Age Revolution of 4th m. BCE
--Copper anthropomorphs in Ganga-Yamuna-doab, Copper Hoard culture area are professional calling cards of merchant helpers, scribes, accountants
--Associated with Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) sites ca. 2600 to 1200 BC
Ahichchhatra
Bahadrabad
Bargaon
Bisauli
Fatehgarh
Hastinapur
Hulas
Jhinjhana
Katpalon
Kausambi
Mitathal
Red fort
Sinauli E
SinauliE
Ochre Coloured Pottery finds ( c.2600 - 1200 BCE ) Extensive copper metallurgy. Burials with pots and copper weapons. "Several sites of culture flourish along the banks of Sahibi River and its tributaries such as Krishnavati river and Soti river, all originating from the Aravalli range and flowing from south to north-east direction towards Yamuna before disappearing in Mahendragarh district of Haryana.(Cultural Contours of India: Dr. Satya Prakash Felicitation Volume, Vijai Shankar Śrivastava, 1981.) The OCP sites of Atranjikhera, Lal Qila, Jhinjhana and Nasirpur are dated to from 2600 to 1200 BCE. The culture reached the Gangetic plain in the early 2nd millennium. Recently, the Archaeological Survey of India discovered copper axes and some pieces of pottery in its excavation at the Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh."(Ali, Mohammad (28 February 2017). "Copper axes point to an ancient culture story"). Archaeologist Akinori Uesugi dates Ochre Coloured Pottery culture to c. 1900-1300 BCE, considering it as a Late Harappan expansion and archaeological continuity of the previous Bara style (c. 2300 and 1900 BCE), which was a regional culture of the Ghaggar valley rooted in the Indus Civilization, calling it the Bara-OCP cultural complex.(Uesugi, Akinori, (2018). "An Overview on the Iron Age in South Asia", in Abstracts for the International Symposium on the Iron Age in South Asia, June 2 and 3, 2018, at Kansai University, Osaka, p. 6: "...During the early second millennium BCE, the Bara-OCP (Ochre-Coloured pottery) cultural complex expanded from the Ghaggar valley to the western part of the Ganga valley. This cultural complex [...] has its origin rooted in the Indus Civilization in the preceding period, its eastward expansion indicates the colonization of the western Ganga valley probably giving great impetus to the Neolithic-Chalcolithic communities in the Ganga valley to transform into a more complex society...").According to Kumar, while the eastern OCP did not use Indus script, the whole of OCP had nearly the same material culture and likely spoke the same language throughout its expanse. OCP culture was a contemporary neighbor to Harappan civilization, and between 2500 BC and 2000 BC, the people of Upper Ganga valley were using Indus script. (Kumar, Vijay (October 2017). "Archaeological Gazetteer of Aligarh & Hathras Districts with special reference to OCP & Other Proto-Historic Cultures of Indo-Gangetic Plains". Indian Journal of Archaeology. 2 (4): 55–394.) loc.cit. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ochre_Coloured_Pottery_culture
An unambiguous, emphatic evidence of the use of Indus Script in Indo-Gangetic Plains are the scores of copper anthropomorphs presented in this monograph.
Woman Riding Two Bulls (bronze), from Kausambi, c.2000-1750 BCE
miṇḍāl 'markhor' (Tōrwālī) meḍho a ram, a sheep (Gujarati)(CDIAL 10120) Rebus: meḍh मेढ ‘merchant’s helper’ (Pkt.) meṛha, meḍhi ‘merchant’s clerk;(Gujarati) mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Mu.Ho.) PLUS कर्णक m. du. the two legs spread out AV. xx , 133 , 3 Rebus: कर्णिक having a helm; a steersman (Monier-Williams). Thus, a maritime trade seafaring merchant, accountant; करण karaṇa a. [कृ-ल्युट्] -णः 1 (Ved.) An assistant. यमस्य करणः Av.6.46.2; Business, trade; -णम् The usage of the writer caste.(Apte) కరణము [Skt.] n. A village clerk, a writer, an accountant. వాడు కూత కరణముగాని వ్రాతకరణముకాడు he has talents for speaking but not for writing. స్థలకరణము the registrar of a district. கரணம் karaṇam itle-deed, document (R.F.); சாஸனம். 14. Accountant, karnam; கணக்கன். (S.I.I. i, 65.) கரணன் karaṇaṉ , n. karaṇa. Accountant; கணக்கன். கரணர்கள் வந்தனர் கழல் வணங்கினார் (கந்தபு. மார்க்கண். 210).[T. karaṇikamu.] Office of accountant. கருணீகம் karuṇīkam , n. < karaṇa. [T. karaṇikamu.] Office of village accountant or karṇam; கிராமக்கணக்குவேலை. கருணீகன்
karuṇīkaṉ , n. < id. 1. Village accountant; கிராமக்கணக்கன். கடுகை யொருமலை யாகக் . . . காட்டுவோன் கருணீகனாம் (அறப். சத. 86). 2. A South Indian caste of accountants; கணக்குவேலைபார்க்கும் ஒருசாதி..*இஸம் isam ,n. < Arab. ism. Name, individual; பெயர்.*இஸம்கர்ணம் isam-karṇam , n. < id. + karaṇa. Registered village accountant, as dist. fr. one who is actually doing the work; கிராமக் கணக்க மிராசுள்ளவன்.கரணத்தான் karaṇattāṉ , n. < id. Accountant; கணக்கன். இந்நகரக்கரணத்தான் (S.I.I. iii, 23).கரணத்தியலவர் karaṇattiyalavar , n. < id. + இயலவர். Account officers working under a king, one of eṇperu-n-tuṇaivar, q.v.; அரசர்க்குரிய எண்பெருந்துணைவருள் ஒருவராகிய கணக்கர். (திவா.)
देशकुळकरणी dēśakuḷakaraṇī m An hereditary officer of a Mahál. He frames the general account from the accounts of the several Khots and Kulkarn̤ís of the villages within the Mahál; the district-accountant कुळकरण kuḷakaraṇa n The office or business of कुळकरणी. 2 (कुला) A ludicrous term for a buttock.कुळकरणी kuḷakaraṇī m (कुल & कारणी S) An officer of a village under the पांटील. His business is to keep the accounts of the cultivators with Government and all the public records.(Marathi)
Copper Hoard Culture Objects (CHC Objects) are NOT vajra or boomerangs or ritual objects but Professional calling cards-- Coper/bronze Anthropomorphic figures, professional calling cards of copper workers and seafaring merchants. Chalcolithic, Ganges-Yamuna basin, 2800-1500 BCE. Provenance: Bisauli (212 km from New Delhi), Badaun district, Uttar Pradesh. In 1985 Paul Alan Yule published 1083 examples from 'Copper Hoards' but also other peninsular prehistoric metal finds.(Yule, Paul Alan (1985), The Bronze Age Metalwork of India, Prähistorische Bronzefunde XX,8)
Cemetery H, Late Harappan, OCP, Copper Hoard and Painted Grey ware sites.
"Copper Hoard Culture describes find-complexes which mainly occur in the western Ganges-Yamuna doab in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent. They occur mostly in hoards large and small, and are dated to the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE, although very few derive from controlled and dateable excavation contexts."[Yule, Paul Alan (2003), "Beyond the Pale of Near Eastern Archaeology: Anthropomorphic Figures from al-Aqir near Baḥlāʾ, Sultanate of Oman, Man and Mining", in Stöllner, T. (ed.), Mensch und Bergbau Studies in Honour of Gerd Weisgerber on Occasion of his 65th Birthday, Bochum, p.541, pp. 537–542]..
[quote] Regional find-groups
Four regional find-groups are identifiable with their characteristic find-types:
Characteristic hoard-finds from South Haryana/North Rajasthan (recorded: 383) include flat axes, harpoons, double axes, swords with so-called antenna grips and others.
In the Ganges-Yamuna Doab (235) related types occur.
Those from Chota Nagpur differ (235) entirely from these. They include finely worked pieces, and mostly look at first like axe-heads but are probably ingots.
Fewer are those known from Madhya Pradesh (120), although originally there were some 424 from the Ghangaria hoard alone.
Of the four find groups, the largest number derives from southern Haryana, especially from Hansi, 120 km west of Delhi [11] These are purchases and are not excavated. R.A.E. Coningham believes that one of the largest hoards is that from Daimabad with 60 kg.[12] It is an isolated contemporary phenomenon with little to do with the four main find-groups. Several writers do not distinguish between any early copper-based artefacts and the more narrowly defined Copper Hoards.
Artifacts from Al-Aqir, Oman, Lothal, Gujarat and Kallur, Karnataka also comprise other finding spots of the copper hoard culture.
Characteristics of the artefacts
The copper ore used derives from different ore ranges in Rajasthan (Khetri), southern Haryana, Bihar/West Bengal/Orissa (especially Singhbhum) as well as Madhya Pradesh (Malanjkhand), to judge from the proximity to the find spots.
Hoard objects contain from 78-99% copper. Six contain up to 32.9% iron.(P. Yule/A. Hauptmann/M. Hughes, The Copper Hoards of the Indian Subcontinent: Preliminaries for an Interpretation,Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz 36, 1989 [1992] 262-263 Tab. 4 & 5 http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/savifadok/volltexte/2009/509) Artefacts from Haryana show the greatest chemical variation. Those from Ghangharia are chemically the most homogeneous. Variations in the amount of different constituent metals are considered to be unintentional. Harappan metallurgists seem better able to produce usable alloys.
Certain copper artifacts from the late 3rd millennium contexts in Oman resemble the anthropomorphs of the Indian Copper Hoards. [unquote]"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper_Hoard_Culture
Archaeological cultures associated with Indo-Iranian migrations (after EIEC). The Andronovo, BMAC and Yaz cultures have often been associated with Indo-Iranian migrations. Some connection with the Copper Hoard Culture is possible.
--Rebus is a metaphor of Indus Script visual language; mũhe 'face' signifies Meluhha rebus muhã 'metal ingot, smelted metal out of a smelter'
--Two major contributions made by Ancient India during the Bronze Age Revolution are identified: 1. Maritime Trade of copper from Khetri mines by seafaring merchants/artisans of Meluhha (Sarasvati-Sindhu Civilization); and 2. discovery of cire perdue (lost-wax casting) technique to create bronze sculptural artifacts.
Section 1. Maritime Trade of copper from Khetri mines
Section 2. Cire perdue (lost-wax) metal castings
This is an addendum to:
1. 1.Kīrtimukha 'face of glory' disgorges ceṭṭai 'plumage' to signify ceṭi 'light, splendour'; ceḍlu ' flash of lightning, thunderbolt'; seṭṭhin ʻguild-master' https://tinyurl.com/5x5x32dn
2.Three professional calling cards of Indus Script Corora, Sarasvati CIvilization, ca. 3rd-2nd m. BCE signify maritime metalwork trad https://tinyurl.com/4fwsmbe4
In addition to the three professional calling cards, scores of copper anthropomorphs which are also professional calling cards have been found in Painted Greyware or Copper Hoard Culture sites of the Sarasvati-Ganga-Yamuna river basins. cf. Madarpur, Uttar Pradesh finds.
3. Scores of copper anthropomorphs with bent limbs, Sarasvati Civilization signify metalsmith; combined Indus Script - Brahmi inscription on an anthropomorph signifies smith-helmsman https://tinyurl.com/y9xnvpjx
4. Copper anthropomorphs are dharma saṃjñā, संज्ञा(Samskrtam), dhamma sañña, सञ्ञा (Pali) ‘responsibility badges’ in Bhārata Rāṣṭram –Of helmsman-metals-artificer श्रेणि guild in Harappa Script Bronze Age revolution who contributed to the nation’s wealth http://tinyurl.com/jukgebp
5. Somas, त्र्य्-म्बक in RV 7.59.12 is a processing of copper from copper sulphate. विश्वापुषं “रयिं विश्वस्य पोषकं धनं “कृणोतु करोतु https://tinyurl.com/yb5kcvp8
Section 1. Maritime Trade of copper from Khetri mines
The finds of three unique calling cards cited in link 3 above are not a swallow which make a summer. Yes, indeed. One swallow does not or even three swallows do not a summer make i.e., One instance of an event (such as the arrival of a single bird) does not necessarily indicate a trend. An allusion to the return of migrating swallows at the start of the summer season. Calque of Ancient Greek μία χελιδὼν ἔαρ οὐ ποιεῖ (mía khelidṑn éar ou poieî), a remark found in Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics (1098a18: “one swallow does not a summer make, nor one fine day; similarly one day or brief time of happiness does not make a person entirely happy”), itself inspired by the fable The Young Man and the Swallow by Aesop.
The finds of three unique calling cards cited in link 3 above, are not anecdotal evidences. Scores of comparable copper/bronze anthropomorphs have been found from an extensive area of the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization attesting to the widespread profession of metalwork in the Bronze Age, contributing to the Bronze Age Revolution. A stunning archaeometallurgical provenance analysis proves that most of the bronze of Ancient Near East came from Khetri mines of Ancient India.
Copper Reducing Furnace at Khetri. From Ball's Economic Geology of India. (See p. 140-41 of PC Ray'swork)
Alum and Sulphate of Copper Works Khetri.From Ball's Economic Geology of India. (See p. 148 of PC Ray's work).
Source: A History of Hindu Chemistry - Volume 2
From the earliest times to the middle of the sixteenth century, A.D., with Sanskrit texts, variants, translation and illustrations.
By Praphulla Chandra Ray
Published by Williams and Norgate, London - 1909
http://bit.ly/2Fd91DZ
‘The following extracts from Ball’s ‘Economic Geology of India’ will also throw considerable light on this subject (minerals). It will be seen how in India the traditions of the technical arts of which we get vivid glimpses in the Rasarnava have been preserved even to our own days from time immemorial. ‘Rajputana – Copper ores are found in several of the Independent States of Rajputana, and also in the British district of Ajmir. Mining has been practiced on a large scale, but at present the trade of miner is becoming extinct and the operations, which are only carriedon in a few of the localities are of a petty nature. The names of the States in which there are mines are as follows: Alwar, Bhartpur, Jaipur, Udepur, Bundi and Bikaner. Alwar State – According to Mr. Hacket there are ancient copper mines at the following localities in this state: Daribo, Indawas, Bhangarh, Kusalgarh, Beghani, Pratabgarh, Tassing and Jaisingpura. The most important of this is the first. Deribo – The mine is situated on a sharp anticlinal bend in a thin band of black slates intercalated in the Alwar quartzites. There appears to be no true lode; the one, which is pyrites mixed with arsenical iron, occurs irregularly disseminated through the black slates, a few specks and stains only being seen in the quartzites; occasionally rich nests of ore were met with…From an interesting account of Major Cadell, the following facts regarding the manufacture have been extracted. The ore, as usual in the native process, is pounded, made up into balls with cow-dung roasted, and then smelted in a closed furnace and refined in an open charcoal fire. Thirty pounds of ore require four times that quantity of charcoal and yield 5 ½ pounds of metal or 16.6 percent. During the last 12 years the average annual outturn has been only 3 tons 8 cwts., and it is diminishing owing to the influx of European copper. Singhana (Jaipore State) – The copper mines at Singhana are situated in rocks belonging to the Arvali series. The earliest account of these mines which is believed to have been by Captain Boilcan, was published in the year 1831. The principal productions were copper, blue vitriol or copper sulphate, alum, and an ore of cobalt called sehta or saita. The mines are described as being tortuous and of great extent; at the working faces it was the custom to light fires which caused the rock to split up. Lamps were used which the miners carried on their heads and with a gad and hammer extracted the ore. The principal ore found appears to have been pyrites. It was sold retail by auction to the proprietors of different furnaces. The pounding or crushing was effected on stone anvil with a hammer weighing eight or ten seers; when completely reduced to powder the ore was made up into balls with cow-dung and roasted. The blast furnaces (vide illustrations) were prepared in the following manner. A quantity of common sand was spread on the door of a circular cut, in the centre of which a depression, 12 to 15 inches in diameter and 2 or 3 inches deep, was made; in this a layer of fine sand another of ashes were laid to prevent the metal from adhering to the bottom of the receiver; two clay nozzles or tuyers were then placed on opposite sides of this hollow and a third between them, leaving the fourth side vacant for the slag to escape. The nozzles were then connected by moist clay and a circular rim of mud, a few inches in height, was raised, on which three annular vessels of fireclay were placed to form the body of the furnace, each of these was 15 inches in external diameter, 10 inches high, and 3 inches thick. They were used repeatedly, but the lower part of the furnace had to be reconstructed for every charge. The bellows were simply goat-skins connected with the nozzles, and were worked by the families of the smelters. After a preliminary firing, to dry the mud, the furnace was charged with charcoal, roasted ore and iron slag, the latter being employed as a flux. In a day of nine or ten hours’ duration, 3 maunds of charcoal, 2 ½ of the roasted ore, and 2 of the iron slag were consumed. The slag was drawn off and the smelted copper which had accumulated at the bottom of the furnace was removed on the following day. It was then re-melted and refined in an open furnace under a strong blast from bellows, and cast into small bars or ingots, which were subsequently removed to the Mint and cut up and fashioned into coins. The ore was said to yield only from 2 ½ to 7 ½ percent of metal, but the profits must have been not inconsiderable as the Khetri Raja is said to have claimed one-sixth of the value of the copper in addition to Rs. 14,000 received for the lease. The quality of the metal is said to have been inferior to that of Basawar, this being attributed to the use of the iron slag as a flux…Considerable quantities of blue vitriol (copper sulphate), alum and copperas (iron sulphate) are manufactured from the decomposed slate and refuse of the mines. The slates are steeped in water, which is afterwards evaporated in large iron vessels, when the blue vitriol, is crystallized out, afterwards the alum, and lastly the copperas. Mr. Mallet found traces of nickel and cobalt in all three of these substances. Copper smelting in the Singhbum District (Bengal)—Indications exist of mining and smelting have been carried on in this region from a very early period, and the evidence available, points to the Seraks or lay Jains as being the persons wh, perhaps 2000 years ago, initiated the mining (Proc. As. Soc. Bengal, June 1869, p.170). The number and extent of the ancient workings testify to the assiduity with which every sign of the presence of ore was exploited by these early pioneers and those who follow them up to recent times…Alum and Green Vitriol. Dutt speaking of alum states: ‘it is not mentioned by Susruta, in his list of metallics, but later writers give its synonyms and uses.’ This is evidently incorrect. Alum, with green vitriol, is distinctly referred to in Susruta, e.g.’’
In the above sloka surashtraja, lit., begot of Surashtra (modern Surat), is used in the sense of alum. From the ancient times the ‘earth of Surat’ has been known to yield this mineral. Amara Simha in his Lexicon, written sometime between 400-600 AD, gives among others the following synonms of alum: kAmkshI, tuvarI and surashtraja. Rasaratnasamucchaya also gives the same synonyms (Bk. III, 59-62). The manufacture of alum survives to our own days, as the following descriptions will show: ‘Alum shales, so called, are of rare occurrence in peninsular India, and, so far as is known, the only considerable native manufacture is situated in Rajputana; but as will be gathered from what follows, the tertiary rocks of the extra-peninsular regions often contain such shales. In two localities lumps of alum…occur naturally in sufficient abundance to be a regular article of export. Alum is principally used as a mordant in dyeing, but as a drug its employment is extensive in India. Behar—Captain Sherwill in 1846 (Journ. As. Soc. XV, p.58) stated that a small quantity of alum was manufactured from slates obtained in the district of Shahabad; these rocks, it is believed, belonged to the Bijigarh pyritous shales of the Kaimur group of the Vindhyan serie. The alum was sold at the high price of one rupee per tola; it was identical with the salajit of Nepal. Copperas or iron sulphate is obtained in the same region, which is situated to the north of Rotasgarh, and to the west of Sone. Rajputana, Khetri, and Singhana – In connection with the copper mines at the above localities there are manufactories which turn out considerable quantities of blue vitriol (copper sulphate), copperas (iron sulphate), and alum. The process has been very fully described and illustrated by Colonel Brooke. In 1864 there were twenty of these factories at Khetri and about double the number at Singhana. The broken shale from the mine which contains the salts is placed in earthen gharas, together with crusts from the refuse heaps of previous lixiviations and water is added. The gharas are arranged on ledges prepared for the purpose on the heaps of refuse, as will be seen by reference to the woodcut (vide illustrations). Each charge of shale is exposed to three changes of water and the water itself is changed fom one ghara to another till it has taken up the sulphates from seven different steepings. It is then of a thick dirty-bluish colour and is taken to the boiling house, where it is boiled in earthen gharas; when sufficiently concentrated it is left to cool, and thin sticks being introduced the blue vitriol crystallizes on them The mother liquor is then poured off and again boiled, and on the addition of saltpetre, the alum crystallizes at the bottom of the vessel. The residual sulphates still in solution, are allowed to crystallize out by exposing the mixture to the sun. (pp.139-147)
“CUTCH – There are numerous accounts of the manufacture of alum in Cutch. Manufacture of alum. The earliest account (of manufacture) is by Captain Mc Murddo, who states tthat before 1818 the exports of alum amounted in some years to several hundred thousand maunds, which chiefly went to Guzerat and Bombay to be employed in dyeing. The following account by Mr. Wynne is the most recent and complete. The site of the operations is Mhurr or Madh. ‘The rock containsing the material is a pyritous dark-gray or black shale, which is in close association with a soft aluminous psudo-breccia of the sub-nummulitic g group. This shale is extracted from pits and is exposed for four months, a slow combustion taking place owing to the decomposition of the pyrites. It is then spread in squares resembling salt pans and sprinkled with water. After about 12 days it consolidates into efflorescing mamillated crystalline plates or crusts called phitkari-ka-bij or seed of alum. These crusts are boiled in large iron vessels (luted inside with lime), together with saltpetre (or other potash salt), in the proportion of 15 of ‘alum seed’ to 6 of the latter; when it has settled, the liquor is placed in small earthen vessels somewhat the shape of flower-pots, and crystallization takes place in three days. These crystals are again boiled one or more times in concentrate the solution, which is finally ladled into large thin bladder-shaped earthen mutkās or gharās with small mouth; these are sunk into the ground to prevent their breaking, and in five days the alum is found crystallized in masses. The vessels are then broken and the alum is stored. Alum is also manufactured from the water of a hot spring north of Mhurr. The impure saltpetre, which is employed to supply the second base in the above-m,entioned manner, is obtained by lixiviation of villae refuse. (Ball’s ‘Economic Geology’, pp. 431-33). Iron Sulphat. The green vitriol or copperas of commerce, which is known to the natives as kahi and hara kāsis, is produced principally from the so-called alum shales from which alum, copperas is found sometimes as a natural exudation upon alum shales and other rocks which include iron pyrites. This native copperas goes by several different names in India, according to the nature of the other substances with which it is combined. Behar. In the year 1833, Mr. J. Stevenson published an analysis of native sulphate of iron obtained from Behar, which was at that time used by the native dyers of Patna. He found that it consisted of – Iron sulphate 39.0; Iron peroxide 36.0; Magnesia 23.0; Loss 2.0; Total 100. (ibid., p.419) s ’”(pp.149-150)
https://ia600209.us.archive.org/2/items/b24871734_0001/b24871734_0001.pdf
That which facilitates fusion of metals-- borax: 661 Ta. uruku (uruki-) to dissolve (intr.) with heat, melt, liquefy, be fused, become tender, melt (as the heart), be kind, glow with love, be emaciated; urukku (urukki-) to melt (tr.) with heat (as metals or congealed substances), dissolve, liquefy, fuse, soften (as feelings), reduce, emaciate (as the body), destroy; n. steel, anything melted, product of liquefaction; urukkam melting of heart, tenderness, compassion, love (as to a deity, friend, or child); urukkiṉam that which facilitates the fusion of metals (as borax). Ma. urukuka to melt, dissolve, be softened; urukkuka to melt (tr.); urukkam melting, anguish; urukku what is melted, fused metal, steel. Ko. uk steel. Ka. urku, ukku id. Koḍ. ur- (uri-) to melt (intr.); urïk- (urïki-) id. (tr.); ukkï steel. Te. ukku id. Go. (Mu.) urī-, (Ko.) uṛi- to be melted, dissolved; tr. (Mu.) urih-/urh- (Voc. 262). Konḍa (BB) rūg- to melt, dissolve. Kui ūra (ūri-) to be dissolved; pl. action ūrka (ūrki-); rūga (rūgi-) to be dissolved. Kuwi (Ṭ.) rūy- to be dissolved; (S.) rūkhnai to smelt; (Isr.) uku, (S.) ukku steel.
kāsīsa n. ʻ green vitriol ʼ Suśr., kāśīśa -- n. lex.N. kasis ʻ green sulphate of iron, copperas ʼ, Or. kāsīsa; H. kasīs m. ʻ blue or green vitriol ʼ, kāhī f. (← NW?); M. hirā -- kas n., -- kaśī f. ʻ green vitriol, copperas ʼ; -- deriv. S. kahijaṇu ʻ to become coated with verdigris ʼ.(CDIAL 3140)
5422 *ṭakka2 ʻ bald ʼ. 2. *ṭhakka -- .
1. B. ṭāk ʻ bald patch ʼ, ṭākuyā, ṭek˚ ʻ bald ʼ, Or. ṭākarā; M. ṭakkal n. ʻ bald spot ʼ, ṭakalyā ʻ bald ʼ, ṭakurẽ n., ˚korī f., ṭakulẽ n., ˚lī f. ʻ slang term for head, esp. fore part ʼ;B. ṭākrā ʻ palate ʼ semant. cf. tāˊlu -- .
2. Or. ṭhākerā ʻ bald ʼ.
5423 *ṭakka3 ʻ hill ʼ. 2. *ṭaṅga -- 4. 3. *ṭikka -- 2. 4. *ṭiṅga -- . 5. *ṭēkka -- . 6. *ṭēṅga -- . 7. *ṭuṅka -- . 8. *ṭuṅga -- 1. 9. *ḍakka -- 3. 10. *ḍagga -- 1. 11. *ḍaṅga -- 3. 12. *ḍuṅga -- . 13. *ḍōṅga -- 2. 14. tuṅga -- . 15. *thuṅga -- . 16. *daṅga -- . [Cf. ṭaṅka -- 4 m. ʻ peak, crag ʼ MBh., tuṅga -- (see below) ʻ lofty ʼ, m. ʻ mountain ʼ MBh., and *ṭappa -- 3 with further list. Variety of form indicates non -- A***n and perh. (with PMWS 149) Mu. origin. Further poss. connexion with *ḍhōkka -- 2 ʻ rock ʼ and large group of words for ʻ lump ʼ s.v. *ḍhikka -- 1]
1. Ext. -- r -- : S. ṭakuru m. ʻ mountain ʼ, ṭakirī f. ʻ hillock ʼ, ṭākara f. ʻ low hill ʼ, ṭākirū m. ʻ mountaineer ʼ; N. ṭākuro, ˚ri ʻ hill top ʼ.
2. Or. ṭāṅgī ʻ hill, stony country ʼ. -- Ext. -- r -- : Or. ṭāṅgara ʻ rocky hilly land ʼ.
3. Ext. -- r -- : Or. ṭikara ʻ high land, sandbank ʼ, ṭikarā, ṭīkirā ʻ anthill ʼ.
4. A. ṭiṅ ʻ mountain peak ʼ, ṭiṅnā ʻ elevated piece of land ʼ, ṭiṅāli ʻ very high ʼ. -- Ext. -- l -- in *uṭṭiṅgala -- .
5. M. ṭek m.n., ṭekā̆ḍ n., ṭekḍī, ṭẽk˚ f. ʻ hillock ʼ. -- Ext. -- r -- : P. ṭekrā m., ˚rī f. ʻ rock, hill ʼ; H. ṭekar, ˚krā m. ʻ heap, hillock ʼ; G. ṭekrɔ m., ˚rī f. ʻ mountain, hillock ʼ.
6. K. ṭē̃g m. ʻ hillock, mound ʼ.
7. G. ṭũk ʻ peak ʼ.
8. M. ṭũg n. ʻ mound, lump ʼ. -- Ext. -- r -- : Or. ṭuṅguri ʻ hillock ʼ; M. ṭũgar n. ʻ bump, mound ʼ (see *uṭṭungara -- ); -- -- l -- : M. ṭũgaḷ, ˚gūḷ n.
9. K. ḍȧki f. ʻ hill, rising ground ʼ. -- Ext. -- r -- : K. ḍakürü f. ʻ hill on a road ʼ.
10. Ext. -- r -- : Pk. ḍaggara -- m. ʻ upper terrace of a house ʼ; M. ḍagar f. ʻ little hill, slope ʼ.
11. Ku. ḍã̄g, ḍã̄k ʻ stony land ʼ; B. ḍāṅ ʻ heap ʼ, ḍāṅgā ʻ hill, dry upland ʼ; H. ḍã̄g f. ʻ mountain -- ridge ʼ; M. ḍã̄g m.n., ḍã̄gaṇ, ˚gāṇ, ḍãgāṇ n. ʻ hill -- tract ʼ. -- Ext. -- r -- : N. ḍaṅgur ʻ heap ʼ.
12. M. ḍũg m. ʻ hill, pile ʼ, ˚gā m. ʻ eminence ʼ, ˚gī f. ʻ heap ʼ. -- Ext. -- r -- : Pk. ḍuṁgara -- m. ʻ mountain ʼ; Ku. ḍũgar, ḍũgrī; N. ḍuṅgar ʻ heap ʼ; Or. ḍuṅguri ʻ hillock ʼ, H. ḍū̃gar m., G. ḍũgar m., ḍũgrī f.
13. S. ḍ̠ū̃garu m. ʻ hill ʼ, H. M. ḍõgar m.
14. Pa. tuṅga -- ʻ high ʼ; Pk. tuṁga -- ʻ high ʼ, tuṁgĭ̄ya -- m. ʻ mountain ʼ; K. tŏng, tọ̆ngu m. ʻ peak ʼ, P. tuṅg f.; A. tuṅg ʻ importance ʼ; Si. tun̆gu ʻ lofty, mountain ʼ. -- Cf. uttuṅga -- ʻ lofty ʼ MBh.
15. K. thọ̆ngu m. ʻ peak ʼ.
16. H. dã̄g f. ʻ hill, precipice ʼ, dã̄gī ʻ belonging to hill country ʼ.
Addenda: *ṭakka -- 3. 12. *ḍuṅga -- : S.kcch. ḍūṅghar m. ʻ hillock ʼ.
Copper sulfate.jpgCrystals of CuSO4·5H2O
5mm wide monocrystal of blue vitriol (cupric sulfate)
Blue vitriol/Vitriol of Cyprus/Roman vitriol --j Copper sulphate -- CuSO4·5H2O
Dyeing
Copper sulfate can be used as a mordant in vegetable dyeing. It often highlights the green tints of the specific dyes. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper(II)_sulfate
Etching
Copper sulfate is used to etch zinc or copper plates for intaglio printmaking.[32][33] It is also used to etch designs into copper for jewelry, such as for Champlevé."Champlevé is an enamelling technique in the decorative arts, or an object made by that process, in which troughs or cells are carved, etched, die struck, or cast into the surface of a metal object, and filled with vitreous enamel. The piece is then fired until the enamel fuses, and when cooled the surface of the object is polished. The uncarved portions of the original surface remain visible as a frame for the enamel designs; typically they are gilded in medieval work.[1] The name comes from the French for "raised field", "field" meaning background, though the technique in practice lowers the area to be enamelled rather than raising the rest of the surface.The technique has been used since ancient times, though it is no longer among the most commonly used enamelling techniques."
A similar technique was known as "shippou-zogan" in Japan, where it was considered a form of damascening. Damascening is the art of inlaying different metals into one another—typically, gold or silver into a darkly oxidized steel background—to produce intricate patterns similar to niello. The English term comes from a perceived resemblance to the rich tapestry patterns of damask silk.
COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Kris met schede TMnr A-1448.jpgThe kris consists of three parts; blade (wilah), hilt (hulu) and sheath (warangka) "The making of a kris was the specialised duty of metalworkers called empu (lit. "possessor") or pandai besi (lit. "iron-skilled"). In Java the honorary title empu refer to those ironsmiths who possess the special skill of forging the kris. According to Javanese beliefs, a kris empu should possess knowledge, technical skills and also spiritual prowess, since kris are believed to have physical and spiritual presence.[30] This was meant to differentiate the masters from common pandai besi that mostly create common metal tools or peasant's weapons like parang or golok. In old Majapahit, a kris bladesmith was referred to as pande and all were reputed to be able to work hot iron with their bare hands. The people of Majapahit would eventually flee to Bali where the occupation has been preserved by the Pande clan to this day, members of whom also make jewellery. A bladesmith makes the blade in layers of different iron ores and meteorite nickel. Some blades can be made in a relatively short time, while more intricate weapons take years to complete. In high quality kris blades, the metal is folded dozens or hundreds of times and handled with the utmost precision. Empu are highly respected craftsmen with additional knowledge in literature, history, and the occult....In former times, kris blades were said to be infused with poison during their forging, ensuring that any injury was fatal. The poison used to polish kris blade is called warangan.The process of chemical coating was done by warangan or jamas (washing) the blade with acid and minerals that contains arsenic compounds.The process of doing so was kept secret among smiths. Different types of whetstones, acidic juice of citrus fruits and poisonous arsenic bring out the contrast between the dark black iron and the light colored silvery nickel layers which together form pamor, damascene patterns on the blade."
Richly decorated Balinese kris hilt coated with gold, adorned with rubies. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kris
http://crossasia-repository.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/1895/1/Metalwork_BronzeAge_India.pdf
20 of the 31 anthropomorphs discovered in Madarpur, Uttar Pradesh.
The Kereśvar śiva temple in śeorajpur, where a copper anthropomorph with 'fish' hieroglyph was found has a metal ceiling.
--Metaphors of Meluhha rebus visual language -- Indus Script cipher -- signify Ancient India's significant contributions to Bronze Age revolution; this explains why unique orthography results in composition of hieroglyphs to depict a chimaera, 'a composite animal or a fabulous animal' (m1177, m0300 Mohenjo-daro seals) which includes the hieroglyph of a human face. Such a human face is shown on a tin ingot found in a shipwreck at Hafa, ca. 1300 BCE.
--muhã 'quantity of metal produced at one time in a native smelting furnace, ingot'; the other two hieroglyphs on the pure tin-ingot of Haifa are: ranku 'liquid measure' Rebus: ranku 'tin' (Santali). dāṭu = cross (Te.); dhatu = mineral (Santali) Hindi. dhāṭnā ‘to send out, pour out, cast (metal)’ (CDIAL 6771). Thus, the hypertext reading in Meluhha is: ranku dhatu muhã 'tin mineral ore ingot'.
A metaphor of Indus Script cipher is that of Kīrtimukha 'face of glory' which adorns the facades of hundreds of Śiva mandirams all over the globe. A fierce, feline face disgorges plumage, the face is comparable to many artifacts presented in this monograph which demonsrate that the orthography of Kīrtimukha 'face of fame', is traced to Indus Script tradition of Sarasvati-Sindhu Civilization of ca. 3rd millennium BCE as a rebus reading in Meluhha lexemes. kola 'tiger' rebus: kol 'working in iron' kolhe 'smelter' PLUS panja 'feline paw' rebus: panja 'kiln, smelter'.
Rebus: a representation of words or syllables by pictures of objects or by symbols whose names resemble the intended words or syllables in sound also : a riddle made up of such pictures or symbols. (Merriam-Webster dictionary). In ancient writing systems of Egyptian hieroglyphs and Indus Script hieroglyphs and many Ancient Near East cylinder seal pictographs, rebus is a visual metaphor. For example, the Emperor Narmer's name is signified by the Coptic hieroglyphs of nar 'catfish' PLUS mer 'chisel' as shown on the Narmer palette. Both sides of the Palette are decorated, carved in raised relief. At the top of both sides are the central serekhs bearing the rebus symbols n'r (catfish) and mr (chisel) inside, being the phonetic representation of Narmer's name.(Wengrow, David, The Archaeology of Ancient Egypt Cambridge University Press, p.207).
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