Foreign Language Teaching Methodology

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#7. The Harkness Discussion: Where Everyone Has a Voice at the Table - ELL Strategies | TanKHuynh How the Harkness Method works when using ELL teaching strategies. Teaching ELLs to read critically through collaborative discussions.

MOTIVATIONAL DYNAMICS (Dornyei, Bot, Waninge, 2014)
As well as having influenced the field of SLA as a
whole, a complex dynamic systems approach has
had significant influence on the understanding of
L2 motivation. This understanding has undergone a transformation over the past decade; the
days in which motivation was seen as an individual difference variable within a modular
framework—the most famous of which being
Robert Gardner’s (1985) socio-educational model—
seem to belong to the past. As soon as motivation
came to be seen as a situated construct during
the educational shift in the 1990s (e.g., Crookes
& Schmidt, 1991; Do¨rnyei, 1994; Williams &
Burden, 1997), it was only a matter of time before
one would arrive at the unavoidable realisation
that motivation also has a prominent temporal
dimension (i.e., it displays ongoing change). The
first step toward a more dynamic conception of
L2 motivation was the introduction of various
process models. Examples of frameworks depicting
motivation as a process include Williams and
Burden’s (1997) theory, in which three different
stages of motivation were distinguished: (1) the
reason for doing something, (2) deciding to
do something, and (3) persisting in doing
something. Similarly, Do¨rnyei and Otto´’s (1998)
process model of L2 motivation differentiated
between three phases in the development of a
student’s L2 motivation: (1) a pre-actional phase,
or choice motivation, in which motivation to initiate
an activity is formed, (2) an actional phase, or
executive motivation, in which the initial level of
motivation has to be maintained during the
learning activity, and (3) a post-actional phase,
or motivational retrospection, in which the process is
evaluated and lessons are drawn that affect
subsequent motivation.
In hindsight, these frameworks were still based
on linear cause–effect relationships—although
the Do¨rnyei–Otto´ model also included several
feedback loops—and it was gradually recognised
that to account for the real dynamics of the
L2 motivational process requires a more radical
reformulation than merely designing increasingly
complicated patchworks of interwoven cause–
effect relationships. A highly instructive parallel
in this respect has been offered by the evolution of
emotion research, as exemplified by the transformation of the thinking of one of the leading
scholars in the area, Klaus Scherer. Originally
interested in the componential structure of
emotions (for a review, see Scherer, 2001),
Scherer became acutely aware of the changing
nature of these components over time and called
for the abandoning of “static state concepts,”
suggesting instead that scholars “move from a
domain oriented approach to a process oriented
approach” (Scherer, 1993, p. 5). However, the
interlinking of different functional systems,
involving cognitive, affective, and motivational
aspects, pushed his conceptualization one step
further:
Unfortunately, neither our conceptual nor our
methodological tool kits are adapted to dealing
with systems of the degree of complexity exhibited
by emotion processes. There is little hope of
‘repairing’ our concepts and methods in a piecemeal
fashion in order to do justice to the phenomenon
under study. Rather, we need a complete revolution
in our thinking about the nature of emotion,
comparable to other paradigm shifts in the history
of science. In particular, we need to move from
thinking in terms of discrete boxes, labels, or even
neural programs to a nonlinear dynamic systems
perspective of emotion. (Scherer, 2000, pp. 77, 80)
In view of the above considerations, a dynamic
systems approach seems attractive in that it is able
to accommodate explanations of both variability
and stability without relying on cause–effect links.
Accounting for fluctuation is a prerequisite to
any further advance in our understanding of L2
motivation because of the salience of the change
of motivation over time, the first of the three main
features of a dynamic system as mentioned above.
This change appears frequently in recent L2
motivation research. Hotho (2000) for example
found that even when a learner’s overall L2
motivational profile remained relatively stable
during a semester, short term motivation was
susceptible to considerable change: “[T]he
teachers may sense changes or fluctuations from
week to week, as a result, perhaps, of a piece of
homework, a test, or a class that was particularly
inspiring or noninspiring” (p. 326). Similarly,
Pawlak (2012) and Poupore (2013) traced the
development of groups of learners for the
duration of several classroom hours, and they,
too, highlighted the dynamic nature of short-term
motivation. Other investigations have documented long-term tendencies in motivational
evolution, usually evidencing some decline in
levels of motivation during the course of extensive
institutional engagement (e.g., Chambers, 1999;
Do¨rnyei, Csize´r, & Ne´meth, 2006; Gardner et al.,
2004). These studies seem to suggest that motivation may fluctuate at different time scales that
range from minutes to hours, days, months, or
years. These time scales interact: What happens
on the minutes scale has an impact on what
happens on higher time scales and the other way
around (for a discussion on time scales in
language development, see de Bot, 2012).
On the other hand, the developmental variation observed in student motivation has also
included occasional stable periods or predictable
patterns, the second of the three main features of
a dynamic system. For example, Koizumi and
Matsuo (1993) found that after a sudden decrease
Freerkien Waninge et al. in motivation following the transition to junior
high school, students’ motivation settled into
an equilibrium. In a qualitative study examining
motivational evolution over the lifespan, Shoaib
and Do¨rnyei (2005) elicited a number of recurring temporal patterns and key transformational
episodes affecting motivation, including for example transitions to new life phases (such as leaving
school and entering the world of work) or the
experience of visiting an English-speaking environment. To cite a final study that examined
temporal variation and stability, this time in L2
learners’ willingness to communicate (WTC),
MacIntyre and Legatto (2011) found not only
variability in learners’ willingness to speak, but
also a stable level, or attractor state, when the
surrounding systems supported a learner’s WTC:
WTC shows the properties of a dynamic system. We
see that there are changes over time wherein each
state is partially dependent on the previous state. We
also see the interconnectedness of the linguistic,
social, cognitive and emotional systems that produce
WTC. When the systems function together to
facilitate communication, we see WTC as an attractor
state. (MacIntyre & Legatto, 2011, p. 169)
Regarding the third of the three main features
of a dynamic system—the importance of context
in motivation research—advances have gone
hand in hand with the more general social turn
(Block, 2003) in SLA research that has characterised the past fifteen years (for a review, see
e.g., Zuengler & Miller, 2006). The best-known
motivation theory in this respect has been
Ushioda’s (2009) Person-in-Context Relational
View of Motivation, which, as the name suggests,
highlights the agency of second language learners
conceived as individuals who are located in
particular cultural and historical contexts and
whose motivation and identities shape and are
shaped by these contexts. This environmental
impact has recently been confirmed, for example,
by Campbell and Storch’s (2011) study, which
explored motivational fluctuation and change
amongst university students learning Chinese as a
foreign language over a semester. The authors
found that factors related to the learning
environment were the most important variables
to impact motivation both in a positive and a
negative sense (i.e., both motivating and demotivating). Furthermore, the dynamic relationship
between learner and context was also confirmed
by the finding that when learners had developed a
clear future image of themselves as speakers of the
L2, they were able to stabilise their motivational
state, even in the face of demotivating contextual
factors, by means of conscious self-motivation
strategies.
In sum, the situated conceptualisation of L2
motivation and the subsequent process models
proposed in the 1990s launched an ongoing
progression of thinking that led to dynamic
conceptions of motivational change. As a result,
metaphorically speaking, the issue of motivational
dynamics is currently in the air as one of the main
themes to explore, as attested to by a high-profile
colloquium under the same title at the 2013
annual conference of the American Association
for Applied Linguistics and a subsequent
anthology edited by the colloquium organisers
(Do¨rnyei, MacIntyre, & Henry, 2014).

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Stephen Krashen on Language Acquisition Stephen Krashen on Language Acquisition from the 80s.

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Language Teaching Methods: Silent Way Language Teaching Methods explores various methodologies of English language teaching. This was a joint project by Diane Larsen-Freeman and the U.S. Informat...

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Language Teaching Methods: Audio-Lingual Method Language Teaching Methods explores various methodologies of English language teaching. This was a joint project by Diane Larsen-Freeman and the U.S. Informat...

A selection of words relating to the study of grammar.