13/08/2026
Kurt Danziger dies at 100 (1926–2026)
Fernando Ferrari tells me that, a few days ago, the renowned historian of psychology Kurt Danziger passed away, shortly after turning 100 on June 3. As a small tribute to such a long and prolific life, I’m sharing fragments of an interview that Hugo Klappenbach, Eduardo Keegan, and I did with him exactly thirty years ago, in Montreal. The interview was published in 1997, in Cuadernos Argentinos de Historia de la Psicología, 3 (1/2), 215-233.
What do you think about the impact of the history of psychology on psychology as a discipline? You once said that better research in the history of psychology was having less impact on the field of psychology. Even as historical methodologies were improving, practicing psychologists were reading less about the history of the discipline than they had a few years earlier.
KD: I wouldn’t say “a lower impact”, because it probably couldn’t go any lower: the only way to go is up. But, of course, this is very difficult to answer in general, because you are going to have enormous differences from one place to another. First of all, there are some general social conditions which are going to make history, as people study it, more interesting, of more general interest; and some other social conditions that are going to have the opposite effect. From what I have seen, when people live through periods of rapid and great historical social change, then they become interested in the historical questions, because history is right there; it is visible, it is affecting their daily lives. So, for example, in South Africa, where they are now having such a period when everything is changing (and very, very quickly) everybody is interested in history. I don’t think they have a problem in that direction, because everybody can see the relevance of historical change. I think, to some extent, this is true of Germany and Eastern Europe, and of other countries with similar situations. In the most highly developed countries, this has not happened. Compared to most countries in the world, these are relatively stable: they have very stable economies, stable social institutions, a tremendous cultural inertia.
KD: And I think this is nowhere more true than in the United States (culturally, they have a very conservative society). In those countries, the relevance of history is not appreciated. And this is not just a problem that others have, it is a general problem, and this is the first point. Again, you can extend this point to intra-discipline questions. When a field is in chaos, when a field is closer to a Kuhnian change of paradigms, when old paradigms are no longer good, then there is an interest in history. As long as normal science seems to be going on, as long as the pressures to have a more radical kind of change are being contained, history is sidelined. And I think it’s a more general attitude: for example in physics, you know how around the turn of the century there was a considerable ferment, because the old Newtonian paradigm didn’t seem to be working so well anymore. And you know, for example, Einstein said that he had studied very carefully the historical work of Ernst Mach, who wrote these books on the history of the physical concepts of entropy and mechanics. Einstein considered that these were definitely relevant. But you know, there are periods when you have normal science going on and everybody works on their little problems. I think these are general factors which are going to be there no matter what we do as historians. If you go more recently, it is interesting that there was a period in the history of American psychology when several books on the history of psychology appeared, one after the other. There was Boring’s book in 1929 and Gardner Murphy’s, almost at the same time, because at that time the field was very much in flux. First of all, because introspective psychology was out, although Titchener was still defending it. There was a search for an alternative, and of course, we know that it came as the behaviorism that was prominent in the 1930s. But that historical interest was due to a search that took place in that situation. So one has to accept that if one is going to work in history in a specialized, systematic way, you continue doing your work, but you must expect that there will be ups and downs of interest in the discipline, depending on what’s happening in psychology.
I guess another of those periods in the history of American psychology was after World War II, around the 1950s (with the second edition of Boring’s book).
KD: And the second edition of the others, also...
And then, in the 1970s, we have the works of Blumenthal, A Reappraisal of Wilhelm Wundt, etc. Those years were also very important for the discipline. What happened then?
KD: I think that maybe the switch to cognitivism had something to do with that, because, as you know, there were all kinds of attempts, for example, to claim Wundt as the first cognitivist, to claim Wundt as the progenitor of the new social psychology, and so on. But you cannot control this. You can’t artificially generate that kind of interest. Certainly there was a wave, there was definitely a wave of interest around 1980. Compared to that, I think that a lot of that has evaporated, because at the moment, we have a cognitivist normal science going on and it is able to push a lot of problems under the covers. But time will come when that doesn’t work anymore, and then history will come to the top again.
This morning, in the paper you read at the Congress, you were talking about a polycentric history...
KD: Yes, that is, of course, the wider perspective. I mean, it is no longer possible to virtually run the contents of psychology from Washington. In the immediate past you could say that was what was happening. This was virtually the only source of funds: funds for granting studies, funds for research and so on. There were virtually no funds for things like that outside America. So students from all over the world, of course, came to the United States and got back home with those methods and those concepts. Since then the world has changed, and we don’t live in that situation anymore. And so, any dream of a monolithic kind of structure for the discipline, I think, is over. And then history becomes interesting again, where you have heterogeneity, where you have variety, where you have a clash about what should be taken for granted and what not; then, there is an opening for history.
Aren’t you afraid that one of the consequences of that polycentric approach could be the isolation of the local histories?
KD: Well, this is of course what I tried to address a bit this morning, and it is possible: we can point to examples of that. But I think that the only answer is that we have to be aware of this temptation and to impose a discipline on ourselves, and to constantly remind ourselves that these things are not operating in a vacuum, and that we have to take the effort to look for the broader relationships.
Of course I agree with what you say, but sometimes, coming from a peripheral country, one gets the feeling that we need a “new movement” capable to conceptually unify all the views from the different local histories.
KD: Yes, it is a challenge. As one of the people I have met comments, “We still have a long way to go”, but certainly, if I felt we didn’t have a long way to go I wouldn’t bother making these points. Who wants to talk about things that are already near the goal?
Going back to the subject of the textbooks, what struck me almost immediately when I first read them was how close together they had been published. It was surprising that Gardner Murphy’s and Boring’s textbooks had been published within such a short period of time.
KD: Absolutely, that is not a coincidence. One even knows the concrete details, the concrete channels through which this operates. We know that at that time the publishers in America were telling people, potential authors: “We have found out that there is a potential market for the history of psychology, would you like to write about that?” And some of them took it up. Then you go one step further back: how did the publishers suddenly get this idea? I mean, they didn’t make it up. You know, in America, publishers’ representatives come around to the academic departments, they knock on the doors and they chat, and they ask around “what do you think about this book” and “what do you think about that book” and “what do you think are the gaps in this area?” “What should we be looking for in the future?” Well, if enough people, if enough professors say to them “I think we need something on history now”, then you have (I don’t like using the term) but then you have the “demand”.
Many years later, around the 1980s, the works of Kelly, O’Donnell, Blumenthal, the revision of that earlier history, it all appeared in the same period...
KD: The most superficial factor was that the Wundt centennial came, and you know how Americans like centennials, because they tend to think of history as a celebration. Under different circumstances, it might have been just the same, but it wasn’t, and that’s because internal to psychology there was a certain ferment. And then I think that’s because there had been a loss of confidence in Behaviorism, newer ideas were coming up. Some of us after all (most of the psychologist not) were aware that all kinds of things had been happening: in philosophy of science, in sociology of science, and of course, you couldn’t do the history of the discipline in the same way. I mean, the theory is not dramatically sealed off. Certainly in my own case this was very important, because I was always interested in the history and theories of science, because I started as a chemist and then I changed disciplines. I began in chemistry but was always reading outside this field. I got more and more dissatisfied with what seemed just a technical subject, and then I did a second degree in psychology and philosophy. So I was in interested in questions like “what is science?” and “is psychology a science?”; and after I changed, “am I exchanging a science for another or am I going into something else?” So I think this was what was important to me and I was always reading about. Back in the 1940s, what I would read mostly in the area was logical positivism, and then gradually things appeared which were clearly critical, pointing out the weaknesses and how many questions were being left unanswered. And then you have this philosophy that stresses empiricism but its own foundations are completely non empirical.
Changing the subject, a little bit, how do you assess the impact of academic Marxism on historiography in general and on the historiography of psychology in particular?
KD: I don’t think it has had very much impact. In the 1930s there were a number of writers who made a deliberate attempt to apply Marxism to the history of psychology. There was of course Politzer, in France, there was a man that everybody forgot, Oliver Caldecott, in England, and of course, some of the Russians, also. Then, in the post-war period a certain amount of work came out of Germany. None of that work has really had, from what I can see, a major impact on the history of psychology. I don’t know, this may be because in classical Marxism there is not much of direct relevance to psychology, so if you want to apply Marxism you have to go beyond it, and then you get to the point where it’s no longer very clear whether one can still talk about the influence of Marxism, for it has become so subtle, so diluted, that’s perhaps impossible to talk about it.
Has it had any influence in your own thought, in your background?
KD: Some, yes, certainly. The emphasis, for example, on the recognition of the ubiquity of content and the danger of thinking in terms of static categories... Although, who can say this? Because I also studied Hegel, so how much is Marx and how much is Hegel? I don’t know anymore...
How would you relate your notion of “intellectual interest” with Pierre Bourdieu’s concept of “intellectual field”?
KD: Well, I must confess I have not paid as much attention to Bourdieu as I should have. It is on my schedule as something I would like to do, so I think at this point it would be better not to go into that.
In Argentina, given the strong influence of French thought, we found it interesting to explore some connections between your ideas and those of Bourdieu.
KD: This is certainly true. From what I have read of Bourdieu (which was always directly on this) I always found him very congenial, but I should do it in a more systematic way to really work out that question.
As I said, we come from a peripheral country, so we are used to reading authors from different parts of the world. It seems strange to us that sometimes, for example, American authors don’t know much about their French colleagues, and vice versa. Now, turning to your new book, you are taking on the history of disciplinary vocabulary. Of course, your focus is on the English language, but it seems to us that the idea goes beyond, that you have a broader goal.
KD: Well, of course, to do this really systematically and comprehensively would require a larger approach. You know, Spanish terms, Russian terms, and so on, and I’m not in the position to do that, and probably there is no single person, so this had to be in the language that I’m fluent in. My hope with this book is that it will perhaps encourage other people to take similar studies, of concepts, of languages, maybe even of theories. I see it as an exemplar of a certain kind of approach: the history of psychological discourse, and this is what we have hardly had. We’ve had history of psychological thinkers, history of psychological theories, in my last book I was doing history of psychological methods, but what we have hardly had at all is this level, and there is a lot more to be done. So I’m just saying: “Look, look: this is an example of what could be done”, and I hope there will be more.
KD: And there is more, I mean, there are some very interesting studies that have been done in recent years. For example, I know of one book on the concept of “stress”, by Kugelmann. Ian Hacking has a history of the concept of “trauma”, and some other people have worked on that, on how the term of trauma is transformed from a purely physical thing into something mental. So, there are still things to do, and as I said, not to speak of the whole question of other languages. You know, I was having that as a problem all the time while I was writing the book. I have a chapter on “motivation”, part of which I talked about, but there’s a part which I didn’t talk about today, that goes into how once you have the category of motivation you get the construction of theories to explain this category. Specifically, in America you get the theories of “drive”, we can date precisely when the category of drive was invented, by whom and all that, but then that raises the question of the German concept of Trieb. Well, it’s a whole different story, it’s a whole different history that has nothing to do with the American drive. And of course it should be done, and I know of one or two Germans who have made a start on that, but there is a lot to be done: it’s a field.
This is a question that could be important for students who want to do research: do you have any daily work routine?
KD: No, not really. I tend to alternate between periods of research and periods of writing. During the periods of research, I’m not doing any writing of manuscripts, I may be making copies, reading and sorting everything out. And then, when I think that it’s ready in my head, I sit down and write.
Given what we’ve discussed, what do you think is the current status of psychology? Is it a science? And if it is, what kind of science is it?
KD: That’s a big question, and again, I think one has to answer that against the background of historical tradition. Because of the trajectory of twentieth century psychology, the project (as we call it) of psychology as a natural science has been the dominant one (in America, first of all, and through the Americans, around the world). There has been almost a desperate attempt to construct psychology as a natural science, under that qualification. However, that has never satisfied everybody, it has never been as uncontroversial as, let’s say, the case of chemistry, and so there has always been a “residual ambiguity” about the status of psychology.
KD: In the last analysis, I think that is the big attraction, the big charm about psychology: that ambiguity between humanistic science and natural science. But at the same time, I would say that given the history that we have come through, we have to emphasize the social science side, just to restore some balance. But I don’t want to get to the point where (by the way, I just had a little controversy today which touches on this point) a person who was commenting something that I’d said, said “At least we can agree that psychology is a social science”. And in my reply I said, “Well, not quite.” “I don’t believe we can just dump that ambiguity; we have to learn to live with that.” But of course, we have to also emphasize, at this stage, the historicity of psychology, which means it has its social science side.
13/08/2026