Tutora Ed Pro

18/03/2026

18/03/2026

18/03/2026

28/02/2026

Electron Transport Chain – The final stage of cellular respiration that produces most of the cell’s ATP.

The Electron Transport Chain (ETC) is the last step of cellular respiration and takes place in the inner mitochondrial membrane. It consists of a series of protein complexes and electron carriers that transfer high-energy electrons from NADH and FADH₂ to oxygen. As electrons move through the chain, energy is released and used to pump protons (H⁺) across the membrane, creating a proton gradient. This gradient drives ATP synthase to produce ATP through chemiosmosis. Oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor, combining with electrons and hydrogen ions to form water. The ETC generates the majority of ATP in aerobic respiration.

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27/02/2026

Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection – Explains how species change over time through inherited variations.

The Theory of Evolution states that all living organisms share common ancestry and have gradually changed over millions of years. Proposed by Charles Darwin, it explains that evolution occurs mainly through natural selection. Individuals within a population show variation, and those with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce. Over generations, these advantageous traits accumulate, leading to adaptation and sometimes the formation of new species. Evolution is supported by evidence from fossils, comparative anatomy, embryology, and molecular biology (such as DNA similarities).

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26/02/2026

Natural Selection – The process by which organisms with advantageous traits survive and reproduce more successfully.

Natural selection is a mechanism of evolution in which individuals with beneficial inherited traits are more likely to survive, reproduce, and pass those traits to the next generation. Over time, these favorable traits become more common in the population. Natural selection occurs due to variation within a population, competition for resources, and environmental pressures. It leads to adaptation, helping species become better suited to their environment.

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25/02/2026

Hardy–Weinberg principle – Mathematical model describing genetic equilibrium in a population.

The Hardy–Weinberg equation is used in population genetics to predict allele and genotype frequencies in a population that is not evolving. The principle states that allele and genotype frequencies will remain constant from generation to generation if certain conditions are met: no mutation, no natural selection, no migration, random mating, and a very large population size. If these conditions are not met, evolution occurs.

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24/02/2026

DNA Structure – A double helix made of two complementary strands.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) has a double helix structure, meaning it looks like a twisted ladder. It is made of two long strands of nucleotides that run in opposite directions (antiparallel). Each nucleotide consists of a sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. The sides of the “ladder” are formed by alternating sugar and phosphate molecules, while the “rungs” are formed by base pairs. The bases pair specifically: Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T), and Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G). These base pairs are held together by hydrogen bonds, which help maintain the stability of the DNA molecule.

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24/02/2026

24/02/2026

The core component of the refinery distillation process.
Did you know? Simply by heating crude oil and allowing the v***r to cool at different heights, it can be separated into a variety of everyday products.
This diagram shows a schematic of a distillation column, the core component of the refining process in an oil refinery.
At the bottom, crude oil is heated in a furnace until it v***rizes. The steam rises within the column. The clever part is:
👉 The temperature at the bottom of the tower is extremely high, while the temperature at the top is lower.
As the steam rises and cools, each component will condense (re-condense into a liquid) at different heights according to its boiling point.
At the bottom (highest temperature zone):
Residue/Asphalt (above 350°C) – a viscous, heavy material used for paving roads.
Fuel oil (around 300°C) – used for ships and industrial power plants.
In the middle section:
Diesel (around 250°C) – fuel for trucks and heavy vehicles.
Kerosene (around 180°C) – aviation fuel for airplanes.
Naphtha (around 120°C) – an important raw material for plastics and chemicals.
Near the top (lower temperature zone):
Gasoline (around 70°C) – fuel for cars.
At the very top (lowest temperature zone):
LPG (20–40°C) – propane and butane used for cooking and heating.
The diagram intuitively explains how the temperature differences within the column separate crude oil into useful fuels and materials—showing that refining doesn't "create" fuel, but rather precisely classifies it based on its boiling point.
One raw liquid.
Multiple important products.
All through scientific separation.

24/02/2026

DNA – The molecule that stores and transmits genetic information in living organisms.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is the hereditary material found in almost all living cells. Its main function is to store genetic instructions that control growth, development, reproduction, and overall functioning of an organism. DNA carries codes for making proteins, which perform most life processes in the body. It also replicates itself during cell division to ensure that genetic information is accurately passed from one generation to the next.

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