JEPEL Education

✅Pathophysiology of fever✅

The process of fever begins when the body encounters foreign substances like bacteria or viruses, which are known as Exogenous Pyrogens. These pyrogens are detected by the body's immune cells, primarily macrophages, leading to their activation. The activated immune cells then release their own signaling molecules, called Endogenous Pyrogens or Cytokines (such as IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-alpha), into the bloodstream.

These cytokines travel to the brain and act on the thermoregulatory center in the hypothalamus. They stimulate the local production of Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), which is the key molecule that "resets" the body's internal thermostat to a higher temperature.

With the set point now elevated, the body perceives itself as being too cold, initiating a phase called the Fever Ascent. To raise the core temperature to the new set point, the body conserves heat by constricting blood vessels in the skin (causing chills and paleness) and generates heat through shivering and increased metabolism. The fever then reaches a plateau, known as Fever Maintenance, where the temperature is held steady at the new, elevated level.

Finally, when the infection resolves or antipyretic medication is administered (which blocks PGE2 production), the hypothalamic set point drops back to normal. The body then rapidly sheds the excess heat through Defervescence, primarily by triggering peripheral vasodilation (flushing) and sweating.

✅ Zaha Hadid-

She was a world-famous British-Iraqi architect known for her bold and futuristic designs. She was born on October 31, 1950, in Baghdad, Iraq, and studied mathematics at the American University of Beirut before pursuing architecture at the Architectural Association School of Architecture in London. In 1980, she established her own firm, Zaha Hadid Architects, where she developed a unique style defined by curved, flowing forms and innovative use of space and materials. Her designs were inspired by movement, nature, and abstract art, which earned her the title “Queen of the Curve.” Some of her most notable works include the Vitra Fire Station in Germany, the London Aquatics Centre for the 2012 Olympics, and the Heydar Aliyev Center in Azerbaijan. In 2004, she became the first woman to receive the Pritzker Architecture Prize, the highest honor in architecture. Zaha Hadid passed away in 2016, but her visionary ideas and groundbreaking structures continue to influence modern architecture around the world.

Her unique architectural design:
1. Heydar Aliyev Center – Baku, Azerbaijan
A flowing, wave-like building famous for its smooth white curves and futuristic design.

2. London Aquatics Centre – London, United Kingdom
Built for the 2012 Olympics, featuring a sweeping roof inspired by the motion of water.

3. MAXXI Museum of 21st Century Arts – Rome, Italy
A modern art museum with interlocking forms and dynamic lines symbolizing movement.

4. Vitra Fire Station – Weil am Rhein, Germany
Her first major completed project, characterized by sharp angles and geometric precision.

5. Guangzhou Opera House – Guangzhou, China
Designed to resemble two river pebbles, blending architecture with the surrounding landscape.

6. The Riverside Museum – Glasgow, Scotland
A transport museum featuring a zigzag roofline that echoes the flow of the River Clyde.

7. Galaxy SOHO Complex – Beijing, China
A commercial and office complex made of four flowing domes connected by smooth bridges.

8. CMA CGM Tower – Marseille, France
A sleek skyscraper that curves elegantly upward, redefining the city’s skyline.

9. Phaeno Science Center – Wolfsburg, Germany
A museum designed like a futuristic landscape with tilted columns and open spaces.

10. Dongdaemun Design Plaza (DDP) – Seoul, South Korea
A cultural hub with an organic, fluid shape covered in thousands of aluminum panels.

⚠️Ringworm...দাদরোগ।⚠️

✅Pathogenesis:

Ringworm, also known as tinea, is caused by dermatophytes, a group of fungi that infect the skin, hair, and nails. The fungi thrive in warm, moist environments and can invade the outer layers of the skin, feeding on keratin, a protein found in skin cells, hair, and nails. The infection occurs when a person comes into contact with the fungi, either through direct contact with an infected person, animal, or contaminated surfaces. The fungi can enter through breaks in the skin and multiply, leading to the development of characteristic symptoms such as red, itchy patches.

✅Symptoms:

The symptoms of ringworm can vary depending on the area of the body affected:

⚠️Skin (Tinea corporis): It usually presents as round, red, itchy patches with raised borders. The center of the patch often appears clearer, giving it a ring-like appearance.

⚠️Scalp (Tinea capitis):On the scalp, ringworm can cause hair loss, flaking, dandruff-like scales, and itchy, inflamed patches.

⚠️Feet (Athlete’s foot or Tinea pedis):This form leads to itching, burning, and peeling of the skin, especially between the toes.

⚠️Groin (Jock itch or Tinea cruris): Ringworm in the groin area causes red, itchy, and sometimes scaly patches.

⚠️Nails (Tinea unguium): Ringworm of the nails can cause them to become thickened, discolored, and brittle.

✅Prevention:

Preventing ringworms involves good hygiene practices:

✔️Avoid close contact with people or animals that have ringworms.Disinfect shared surfaces like gym equipment, public showers, and swimming pool areas, as fungi can survive on these surfaces.

✔️Keep skin clean and dry.Fungi thrive in warm, moist conditions, so it is important to dry areas like feet and groin after showering or sweating.

✔️Wear breathable clothing made of materials like cotton to reduce moisture buildup

✔️Don’t share personal items such as towels, combs, or clothing with others to avoid spreading the infection.

✅Treatment:

Treatment for ringworm typically involves antifungal medications:

✔️Topical antifungals:Over-the-counter creams, powders, or sprays containing antifungal agents like clotrimazole, miconazole, or terbinafine can be applied to the affected area. These medications usually need to be applied for 2-4 weeks, even if symptoms improve earlier, to ensure the infection is completely eradicated.

✔️Oral antifungals: For more severe cases or when the infection affects the scalp or nails, oral antifungal medications such as terbinafine or griseofulvin may be prescribed by a doctor.

✔️Proper hygiene: Regular washing of the affected area with soap and water, along with keeping the area dry, can help speed up recovery and prevent the spread of the infection.

If symptoms do not improve after treatment or the infection spreads, it’s important to consult a healthcare provider for further evaluation and treatment.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF RECEPTORS AVAILABLE ON THE SURFACE OF MACROPHAGE

Macrophages are essential components of the immune system and have a variety of receptors that help them perform their functions. Here are some of the most important receptors and their associated functions:

1.Toll-Like Receptors (TLRs):

Function: TLRs recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), leading to the activation of innate immune responses and inflammation.

Examples: TLR4 detects lipopolysaccharides (LPS) from Gram-negative bacteria; TLR2 recognizes peptidoglycans from Gram-positive bacteria.

2.Fc Receptors (FcRs):

Function: FcRs bind to the Fc region of antibodies, facilitating the phagocytosis of antibody-coated pathogens and immune complexes. This process is known as opsonization.

Examples: FcγRI, FcγRII, and FcγRIII are important for recognizing different antibody subclasses.

3.Complement Receptors (CRs):

Function: Complement receptors bind to complement-coated pathogens, promoting their phagocytosis and clearance. They also play a role in the modulation of inflammatory responses.

Examples: CR3 (Mac-1) and CR4 recognize complement fragments like C3b.

4.Scavenger Receptors (SRs):

Function: SRs are involved in the uptake of a variety of ligands, including modified lipoproteins and apoptotic cells. They contribute to the clearance of cellular debris and modulation of inflammation.

Examples: SR-A and SR-B.

5.C-C Chemokine Receptors (CCR):

Function: CCRs mediate the migration of macrophages to sites of inflammation by responding to chemokine signals. They help in positioning macrophages in tissues and orchestrating immune responses.

Examples: CCR2 responds to CCL2 (MCP-1), which attracts monocytes to inflamed tissues.

6.C-X-C Chemokine Receptors (CXCR):

Function: Similar to CCRs, CXCRs are involved in macrophage migration and activation in response to specific chemokines.

Examples: CXCR1 and CXCR2 respond to IL-8 (CXCL8), which is important for neutrophil and macrophage recruitment.

7.NOD-Like Receptors (NLRs):

Function: NLRs detect intracellular pathogens and contribute to the activation of inflammatory responses by initiating the production of cytokines and the formation of inflammasomes.

Examples: NOD1 and NOD2 recognize peptidoglycan components from bacteria.

These receptors collectively enable macrophages to detect and respond to a wide range of stimuli, including pathogens, damaged cells, and inflammatory signals, thereby playing a crucial role in maintaining immune homeostasis and tissue integrity.

Note: Information collected from different sites.
Image:GOOGLE Photos

Interleukins (ILs) are a diverse group of cytokines that mediate various aspects of the immune response. Here’s a detailed list of interleukins, their roles, positions, and functions:

1.IL-1:

Role: Pro-inflammatory.

Position: Produced mainly by macrophages, dendritic cells, and other immune cells.

Functions: Induces fever, stimulates the production of other pro-inflammatory cytokines, and promotes inflammation.

2.IL-2:

Role: T cell growth and activation.
Position: Produced by activated T lymphocytes.

Functions: Promotes the proliferation and differentiation of T cells, enhances the activity of NK cells.

3.IL-3:

Role: Hematopoiesis.

Position: Produced by T cells, mast cells, and basophils.

Functions: Supports the growth and differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells into various blood cells.

4.IL-4:

Role: B cell differentiation and Th2 response.

Position: Produced by Th2 cells, mast cells, and basophils.

Functions: Drives the differentiation of T cells into Th2 cells, promotes B cell proliferation, and enhances antibody production.

5.IL-5:

Role: Eosinophil activation.

Position: Produced by Th2 cells and mast cells.

Functions: Stimulates the growth, differentiation, and activation of eosinophils, and is involved in allergic responses and asthma.

6.IL-6:

Role: Acute-phase response and inflammation.

Position: Produced by macrophages, T cells, and fibroblasts.

Functions: Stimulates acute-phase protein production in the liver, regulates immune responses, and induces fever.

7.IL-7:

Role: Lymphocyte development.

Position: Produced by stromal cells in the bone marrow and thymus.

Functions: Essential for the development and maintenance of T and B cells.

8.IL-8 (CXCL8):

Role: Chemotaxis.

Position: Produced by macrophages, epithelial cells, and fibroblasts.

Functions: Attracts neutrophils to sites of infection or inflammation.

9.IL-10:

Role: Anti-inflammatory.

Position: Produced by regulatory T cells, macrophages, and B cells.

Functions: Suppresses the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, regulates immune responses, and prevents excessive inflammation.

10.IL-12:

Role: Th1 differentiation and NK cell activation.

Position: Produced by macrophages and dendritic cells.

Functions: Promotes Th1 cell differentiation, enhances the cytotoxic activity of T and NK cells, and supports the response to intracellular pathogens.

11.IL-13:

Role: Allergic inflammation and tissue repair.

Position: Produced by Th2 cells and mast cells.

Functions: Similar to IL-4, promotes B cell differentiation and contributes to allergic responses and tissue repair.

12.IL-15:

Role: T and NK cell proliferation.

Position: Produced by various cells including dendritic cells and macrophages.

Functions: Stimulates the proliferation of T and NK cells, maintains memory T cells.

13.IL-17:

Role: Inflammation and autoimmunity.

Position: Produced by Th17 cells.

Functions: Promotes inflammation and recruitment of neutrophils, involved in autoimmune diseases.

14.IL-18:

Role: IFN-γ production and inflammation.

Position: Produced by macrophages and dendritic cells.

Functions: Enhances IFN-γ production by T and NK cells, involved in inflammatory responses and defense against infections.

15.IL-21:

Role: Immune regulation and B cell activation.

Position: Produced by Th17 cells and follicular T cells.

Functions: Regulates T, B, and NK cell functions, enhances antibody production, and is involved in autoimmune diseases.

16.IL-22:

Role: Mucosal immunity and tissue repair.

Position: Produced by Th17 cells, innate lymphoid cells, and other immune cells.

Functions: Acts on epithelial cells to promote tissue repair and inflammation, supports mucosal barrier maintenance.

These interleukins orchestrate a range of immune functions, from initiating and sustaining inflammation to regulating cell growth and immune responses.

Note: information collected from google