Faculty of English - Ctg Clg

Chaucer’s Art of Characterization

Geoffrey Chaucer was a keen observer of human nature. He knew human psyche before it became branch of science. “The Prologue to the Canterbury Tales” is remarkable example of it. He sketches numerous characters in this book. Every character shows Chaucer’s exceptional art of characterization. He creates realistic characters and paints every character with minute details. In fact, he is famous because of two reasons; firstly, he is a realist and secondly Chaucer’s art of characterization is incredible. He combines both these elements through which he creates real characters. We believe in his stories due to the reason that they they seem real to us.
“Prologue to the Canterbury Tales” contains many wonderful characters. Due to marvelous art of characterization, it is called gallery of different occupations of Chaucer’s era. However, it is wrong to say that this gallery contains just pictures of different human beings; instead we see his characters, talking, laughing and cracking jokes in the way to Canterbury. We feel them and listen carefully their stories. Hardly, we see any poet or writer who has such wonderful power of painting human nature. It is, therefore, no one could surpass him in characterization. He may be the first poet of English literature but he is the best in creating living beings through speech and actions.

1.Order of Chaucer’s Art of Characterization:

Critics are of the view that Chaucer’s art of characterization is based on following common attributes:
• He describes appearance of every character.
• Give detail description of his/her behavior.
• Define color of his/her belongings.
• Sketches his/her dress and
• Discuss his/her sound
However, he does not describe every character in same order. Every time he changes it in order maintains flow of his story.

2.Major Classes through Characters:

Every class of Chaucer’s era is demonstrated through art of characterization. He presents at least one person from every profession. However, he ignores elite class and lower class of his society. He has not sketched even a single character from these two classes in his book. Following are some classes that he presents in “The Prologue to the Canterbury Tales”:
• Chivalry class
• Class of liberal professions
• Class of traders/merchants
• Landed interest
• Cunning class
• Middle class
• Provinces
• Religious class

3.Chaucer’s Keen Observation:

Chaucer, in his way to Canterbury, closely observed every character. Possibly, he did not write his book in his way even then detail of every character is worth mentioning. He does not only notice dress of every person but also his style, behavior and his conduct with others. In addition, he observes physical appearance of every character. He observes that “The Prioress” let no morsel drop from her lips, her forehead was as broad as a span and “The Miller”‘s nose was as big as furnace. Besides, he also observes bravery of “The Knight” and kindness of “The Parson”. He also observes and cites dishonesty of merchants. Hence, in this way, Chaucer’s keen observation is an addition to his art of characterization.
Chaucer when sees dress of a person, it does not only show his profession but also his nature. He also observe horse and belongings of every character. From Knight’s dress, he idealizes that he is a brave person because he finds marks of his armor in his dress. Worn clothes of “Clerk of Oxford” reveal that he prefers books on clothes. Similarly, “The Parson’s” simple clothes reveal his straightforward nature. Chaucer has observed every single thing in each character and mentions it in his book “The Prologue to the Canterbury Tales”. He shows us same realistic image that he himself once observed in his way to Canterbury.

4. Chaucer’s Balanced Art of Characterization:

Chaucer balances his book by presenting characters in contrast to each other. On one hand, he shows corruption of his society but on the other hand balances it by showing good and honest persons. He shows us morally and physically corrupt religious class. At the same time he portrays such characters who are kind and good. For instance, “The Summoner” and “The Pardoner” are two corrupt persons who belong to religious class but “The Parson” and “The Clerk” are kind and honest. “The Parson” is the most kind person of “The Prologue to the Canterbury Tales”. Chaucer’s art of realism and characterization can be witnessed in this context. He has not given his biased opinions. If he shows goodness of his society then at the same time shows badness through different characters too.
Not only the religious class has been put in juxtaposition by the poet but also the other persons of his era. “Wife of Bath” is compared with “The Prioress”. Likewise, men of prayer balance men of war and merchants balance the labors. In this way, we witness Chaucer’s balanced art of characterization in “The Prologue to the Canterbury Tales”.

5. Moving Characterization:
Chaucer’s art of characterization is praiseworthy. His characters are not still. As mentioned above, they move, talk, laugh, tell stories and crack jokes. When we read Chaucer’s poetry we strike up acquaintance with them due which his characters are as fresh today as they were in his era. His characters do not belong to a Utopian world. They are realistic and living beings. They are like us. We believe in them. When we read their stories we laugh with Chaucer. Thus, “The Prologue to the Canterbury Tales” is not mere a gallery of still images but a pure imitation of reality.
To cut a long story short, it is true that Chaucer’s art of characterization is commendable. He has presented realistic and extraordinary characters. Such characters have hardly been presented by anyone in the history of English Literature. He may not be a good poet but he is a true artist. He presents universal characters in “The Prologue to the Canterbury Tales”. They further act and then tell us a story. In this way, Chaucer has blended emotions with every story. His observation of human nature helps him in this regard. In short, Chaucer’s art of characterization is the primary reason behind famousness of “The Prologue to the Canterbury Tales”.

**** Troilus & Criseyde as a poem of Courtly Love
The courtly love as originated in province in the eleventh century differs from the love dealt in Il Filostrato of Boccaccio. Chaucer follows the courtly love with certain modifications. It was modified towards a greater gentleness & sensibility. It is literal and not allegorical.
The ideals of courtly love were publicized in the poems, ballads, writings and literary works of various authors of the Middle Ages. Geoffrey Chaucer, the most famous author of the Middle Ages, wrote stories about courtly love in his book Canterbury Tales , and poems among which is Troilus and Criseyde.

Troilus and Criseyde is considered the longest poem that Chaucer had written, it consists of 1177 stanzas, each stanza consists of seven lines rhymed ABABBCC , known as the “rime royal”, this is a form that Chaucer himself had introduced to English poetry.
The poem ,Troilus and Criseyde deals with the courtly love of the earlier French Tradition. Chaucer mediavalizes love he finds in the books from which he borrowed the story. In him, he loves have genuine feelings for each other but cannot remain true to their oaths of love because of their circumstances.
Such were the circumstances through which both the hero and the heroine had to pass in their love. In the fundamentals , the system of courtly love is diametrically opposite to the teachings of the medieval church. For marriage has no place in courtly love. Further in this relationship, unlike Sacrament of Marriage ,the lady is the supreme authority and the lover is considered of her ‘servant.’ In this story as treated by Chaucer , all the elements of courtly love are conspicuous. Troilus falls in love at first sight, he suffers the malady of love and hesitates to inform Criseyde of his feeling. Criseyde is indifferent and is finally won through the efforts of Pandarus. She insists on absolute secrecy. Troilus is greatly ennobled by the relationship.
But , in certain other important particulars, Troilus and Criseyde differs markedly from the medieval courtly love romance. First Criseyde is a widow , not a wife . Secondly , Pandarus is not only Troilus’ friend but Criseyde’s uncle and consequently has certain ethical responsibilities towards her. Thirdly , the emphasis on secrecy stems not merely from conventional necessity but more realistically from Criseyde’s feeling of insecurity I Troy.
To conclude, the variations from the courtly tradition , have rendered the poem more meaningful.

Treatment of dream in "The Nun's Priest Tale"

Dreams are the backbone of “Nun’s Priest’s Tale”. The story begins with a dream and ends up in a dream. Dreams were also present in the source fable but there the focus of attention was the fate of Chanticleer, whereas the dream had a secondary role to play. While, in “Nun’s Priest’s Tale” the dreams make the basis of the story and the fate of Chanticleer is not much important. Here, the dream is the main source through which a lot of humour flows. So, by making artistic use of dreams, Chaucer makes it the part and parcel.
The poem begins with a short description of a widow having two daughters and some humble house hold articles required for the basic necessities of life. Then, there is a long and tiresome discussion between Chanticleer and Pertelote with regard to the sanctity attached to dreams. As a result of this discussion two schools of thought develop.
1. Dreams are, in fact, realities.
2. Dreams are fantasies.

Chanticleer believes the dreams are true and they signify the coming events, whereas, Pertelote disagrees to this point of view.
Chanticleer and Pertelote give illustrations and references from the past to substantiate their points of view to prove or disprove the reality of dreams. For example, Pertelote refers to Cato who said, “Regard dreams as of no impertinence”. On the contrary, Chanticleer alludes to the writers who were of the view “dreams are true and signify the joys and troubles of our life”. He refers to two tales from the past substantiating the reality of dreams.
In the first tale two friends go to pilgrimage. On the way, they have to stay at separate lodgings. At night, one of them witnesses the friend is being murdered in his dreams and the dreams proves true in the morning.
In the second tale, a man is commended in his dreams to refrain from setting sail in the morning as the ship is going to meet a wreck on that day. This dream also comes true. Chanticleer makes several other references from the history to prove his view point.
Chaucer also makes dreams a vehicle of discussing the vital and paramount issues of life e.g. causes of dreams, an ideal man and an ideal woman, philosophical discussion on flattery, predestination, humour, irony of fate, of pleasures of life, i.e. worldly joys and pleasure are ephemeral and moral lesson.
Firstly, he philosophically discusses the causes of dreams. Pertelote is of the view that we witness horrible dreams owing to overeating and repletion and often due to constitutional disorders and imbalance of humour. She suggests chanticleer some digestive and laxatives.
During the discussion of dreams Chaucer also tells that in the eye of a woman an ideal man is brave, wise and broad-minded, who has emotional self-control, secretive, and is not cruel and miser and not foolish. Also he discusses the qualities of an ideal woman and the role of a woman in man’s life; she is “man’s joy and all his bliss”. She has to encourage man, please him, uplift him when he is frustrated and despaired and help him through thick and thin.
Through dreams Chaucer also discusses the theory of predestination. Chaucer presents three schools of thought regarding the theory of predestination.
1. Firstly, God foreknows everything and we are compelled and destined to act accordingly. Man is totally a bound slave of destiny. He cannot avoid it.
2. Secondly, God has the foreknowledge but we have given a free choice to do or not to do it.
3. Thirdly, God foreknows everything but his foreknowing never compels us to do a thing except by way of conditional necessity.

The dreams are also the main spring of humours. Infact when Chanticleer and Pertelote, two birds, start discussing and arguing about dreams like learned human beings, it creates humour and looks ridiculous. Had these two characters actual human beings it would not have been humorous. Chaucer artistically used dreams for creating humour.
Through dreams he also discusses the irony of fate. There are many things, which one can't acquire unless God wishes. The fox carries the c**k with a desire to eat it calmly in the jungle but at the last moment the c**k escapes. It means that our fate rules us all. Our joys and pleasures vanish in a moment and fate imposes pains and sorrows upon us.
He also uses dreams to convey a moral purpose. He gives a whole account on the dangers of flattery. He proves that flattery satisfies our ego. It blinds us to the truth. It brings us to a romantic environment. First c**k falls to the victim of flattery and then fox falls to the same weapon.
Thus, the whole philosophy of the poem continues through the dream. In the original tale, dream might be a part of a story but here it has illustrations, philosophy, thought, moral etc. So, Chaucer handles dream in such an artistic way that it become more powerful than a mere dream.

Symbolism in The Scarlet Letter

Symbolism refers to symbols writers use to convey specific meanings. Different symbols refer to different things depending on the readers’ circumstances. Writers use symbols to convey different meanings to their readers in their literary pieces. Nathaniel Hawthorne has also used various symbols in The Scarlet Letter, his phenomenal novel written about shaming and social stigmatizing during the early Puritanism. Some of the major symbols used in this novel have been discussed below.

1.The Door

In this novel, the prison door’s description captures the reader’s attention immediately when he or she starts reading it. The prison door is a symbol of punishment given to the culprits and jail inmates for their crimes. Different parts of the prison door such as iron spikes and bars remind the cruel methods used by the Puritanical magistrates to punish criminals and the innocent people as well. The prison door, thus, reminds that punishment given to Hester Prynne but was later released to be ostracized to live in the forest.

2.The Rose Bush

The rose bush is a bush of wild roses, which also appears in the first chapter. Exactly like a rose bush, Hester Prynne also can look beautiful as well as wild in her nature, and even survive against all the odds. However, as it appears in two different places, it could mean two different things. In the first, it perhaps symbolizes Hester Prynne, and later when it appears in the house of the governor, it symbolizes Pearl and her vibrant life.

3.The Scarlet Letter

The letter of “A” written in scarlet color and placed around the neck of Hester becomes a symbol of sin, especially adultery. However, it is fascinating to note that the same letter becomes a symbol of innocence, penance and angelic character of Hester by the end of the story. This symbol also shows how objects transform their symbolic meanings based on lifestyle, circumstances, and choices.

4.Red Color

Although red color is, mostly, associated with s*x, infatuation, passion, violence, and life of sin, it is also associated with true love and purity of heart. In the novel, this color is associated with red roses which means energy, while at one place, it also shows lost passion and sincere love, as the scarlet letter and crimson color of cheeks show love and passion.

5.Scaffold

The scaffold has been used at three places in the novel. Once, it is used in the second chapter where Hester is made to stand and humiliated for her sin of adultery. Here, it is a symbol of sin and crime. It is again used in the twelfth chapter where it is shown as a symbol of confession and hope, but nobody hears Dimmesdale’s confession. It again appears in the 23rd chapter where it is a symbol of freedom from long-lasting guilt and secret, as Dimmesdale confesses everything before dying.

6.Shadow and Light

Two significant seasonal phenomena appear intermittently in the novel. They are sunlight and shadow. For instance, when the question of Pearl’s future appears before the jury, Dimmesdale is in the shadow of the garden. It means it is a symbol of cover. However, when the novel nears its end, there is sunlight on Hester and Dimmesdale, which represents their true love and peace. It also shows the love, forgiveness, and grace of God upon them.

7.Forest

Symbolically, a forest has two contradictory meanings. It means natural love as well as wilderness. As far as its use in the novel is concerned, the forest is a terrifying place, an abode of Satan, as is considered during the Puritanism, and Hester is left in the forest. However, by the end of the novel, it proves a place where a person becomes mature and also does his penance to shed off his sinful past. For example, when Hester and Dimmesdale meet by the end to plan their escape, they meet at the forest. At this stage, it becomes a place of refuge for them. In fact, the forest has also changed its symbolical meanings with time.

8.The Character of Pearl

Pearl’s character is very interesting in the novel as it represents a child’s innocence and also the dual behavior inherited by her father, Dimmesdale, and mother, Hester Prynne. Her wild nature represents the wild and passionate nature of her mother. She is also a symbol of the price Hester has paid for her passionate love affair. Her worth as the only child and the sole solace of Hester increases, which shows why she has been named as Pearl in the story.

9.Dimmesdale and Chillingworth

Dimmesdale’s name suggests that he will have to face the decline or bad luck in his career. He is, in fact, a symbol of a person doomed to fail. The same is the case of Chillingworth. Chilling means icy cold. When he sees Hester Prynne facing the jury of the governor and the pastor at the beginning of the novel, he doesn’t show compassion. Instead of helping his wife, he turns cold-hearted and abandons her. He tries to find out the birth father of Pearl and continues to ploy against Dimmesdale. His name is a symbol of a loveless person.

10.The Black Man

A Black Man appears twice in the storyline of this novel. It happens in the fourth chapter first when Hester sees Chillingworth who is smiling at her. She compares him to the Black Man who haunts the forest. By this, she means the Satan or evil that always keep chasing people to coax them to do sinful acts. Chillingworth suspects that Pearl’s father is Dimmesdale, and warns Hester that he will find the truth. Although it happens again when Pearl has a conversation with her mother about the identity of the Black Man and the relationship with the Scarlet Letter, she does not reveal details to Pearl. However, it is clear that this Black Man is Chillingworth, who indirectly tortures, Dimmesdale, forcing him to accept his identity as Pearl’s father.

Every chapter in The Scarlet Letter has symbols displayed through characterization, setting, colors, and light. Perhaps the most dramatic chapters using these techniques are the chapters comprising the three scaffold scenes and the meeting in the forest between Hester and Dimmesdale. Hawthorne's ability to introduce these symbols and change them through the context of his story is but one of the reasons The Scarlet Letter is considered his masterpiece and a peerless example of the romance novel.

Show Whitman as a poet of joy and optimism.

Introduction:

Walt Whitman is a poet of joy and optimism in his treatment of his themes and also in his attitude to life. A zest for life characterizes all his' utterances. Because of his optimistic idea he conceives of death itself not as an end but as a union, a rebirth into a better life. His mystic awareness of the unity of the universe and the continuity of everything leads to an optimistic belief. It is also his optimism that conceives of a universal brotherhood, a free-democratic world.

Seeks blessings of God:

Whitman's optimism may be traced in different sections of "Song of Myself'. In section 3 the poet says that he is not interested in the philosophical discussion regarding beginning or end of the creation. He is interested in the present, and in the blessings of God, which he can enjoy at the moment. Man, according to him is both physical and spiritual. It is only through the body, "the seen", that one realizes the soul, "the unseen". He is fully satisfied with his body and so sings and dances with joy.

Accepts the reality:

Section 23 brings out Whitman's faith in science and democracy. The poet accepts reality and materialism. He praises the scientists who are working for the welfare of mankind on earth. In section 49 Whitman says that he is not afraid of death. He welcomes death because he realises that death is not the end of life but a fresh beginning. He realizes two mystic truths, "the oneness of all" and the eternity of life. In section 50 the poet, through a mystical trance has gained an insight to realize the divine scheme of things which ensures eternal life and happiness.

Hope for future happiness:

In Section 51 the poet asks his reader to"forget about the past and to think only of the future. He is confident that the future has happiness in store for him; the readers also should be optimistic like him. In the final section (52) the poet tells his readers that he bequeaths himself to the dirt from which he would grow in the form of grass which he loves. If they want him again, they should search for him under their 'boot-soles". The poet's mystic journey ends with a union with the Divine Soul and this union can be achieved by all those who are sincere and honest in their quest for the Almighty.

Conclusion:

To sum up, Whitman's optimism springs from his concept of the poet being a complete lover of the universe. He recognizes all aspects of life and the universe to be equally valuable in a poetic sense. Life thrilled him with the ecstasy of a lover. He finds in the universe benevolence and harmony. A leaf of grass, the galaxy of stars and the human body are all marvelous and miraculous to him. He celebrates all the organs of his body, loves all the faces he comes across and invites everyone to join him on his mystic journey. Thus Whitman is an optimist in the sense that he finds good in all things of the universe.

King Lear - Theme of Blindness

In Shakespearean terms, blinds means a whole different thing.
Blindness can normally be defined as the inability of the eye to see,
but according to Shakespeare, blindness is not a physical quality,
but a mental flaw some people possess. Shakespeare’s most dominant theme in his play King Lear is that of blindness. King Lear, Gloucester, and Albany are three prime examples Shakespeare
incorporates this theme into. Each of these character’s blindness was the primary cause of the bad decisions they made; decisions which all of them would eventually come to regret.

The blindest bat of all was undoubtedly King Lear. Because of
Lear’s high position in society, he was supposed to be able to
distinguish the good from the bad; unfortunately, his lack of sight
prevented him to do so. Lear’s first act of blindness came at the
beginning of the play. First, he was easily deceived by his two eldest daughters’ lies, then, he was unable to see the reality of Cordelia’s true love for him, and as a result, banished her from his kingdom with the following words:

“..................................for we
Have no such daughter, nor shall ever see
That face of her again. Therefore be gone
Without our grace, our love, our benison.”
(Act I, Sc I, Ln 265-267)

Lear’s blindness also caused him to banish one of his loyal followers, Kent. Kent was able to see Cordelia’s true love for her father, and tried to protect her from her blind father’s irrationality. After Kent was banished, he created a disguise for himself and was
eventually hired by Lear as a servant. Lear’s inability to determine
his servant’s true identity proved once again how blind Lear actually was. As the play progressed, Lear’s eyesight reached closer to 20/20 vision. He realized how wicked his two eldest daughters really were after they locked him out of the castle during a tremendous storm.

More importantly, Lear saw through Cordelia’s lack of flatterings and realized that her love for him was so great that she couldn’t express it into words. Unfortunately, Lear’s blindness ended up costing Cordelia her life and consequently the life of himself.

Gloucester was another example of a character who suffered
from an awful case of blindness. Gloucester’s blindness denied him of the ability to see the goodness of Edgar and the evil of Edmund.
Although Edgar was the good and loving son, Gloucester all but
disowned him. He wanted to kill the son that would later save his
life. Gloucester’s blindness began when Edmund convinced him by the means of a forged letter that Edgar was plotting to kill him.
Gloucester’s lack of sight caused him to believe Edmund was the good son and prevented him from pondering the idea of Edmund being after his earldom. Near the end of the play, Gloucester finally regained his sight and realized that Edgar saved his life disguised as Poor Tom and loved him all along. He realized that Edmund planned to take over the earldom and that he was the evil son of the two. Gloucester’s famous line: “I stumbled when I saw” (Act IV, Sc I, Ln 20-21) was ironic. His inability to see the realities of his sons occurred when he had his physical sight but was mentally blind; but his ability to see the true nature of his sons occurred after having his eyes plucked out by the Duke of Cornwall. Fortunately, the consequences of Gloucester’s blindness throughout the play was minimal, after all, he was the only one to die as a result of his tragic flaw.

Albany was another character suffering from the classic case
of blindness, but luckily for him, he survived his battle. Albany’s
case of blindness was purely a result of the love he had for Goneril.
Although he disapproved of Goneril’s actions, he would only mildly
argue his case. When Goneril forced Lear to reduce his army so that he could stay in their castle, Albany protested:

“ I cannot be so partial, Goneril,
To the great love I bear You -”
(Act I, Sc IV, Ln 309-310)

Albany’s deep devotion to Goneril blinded him from the evil she
possessed. His inability to realize how greedy and mean Goneril was after she flattered Lear with a bunch of lies and then kicked him out of their home, just goes to show you how much Albany loved Goneril. Albany was also blind to the fact that Goneril was cheating on him and that she was plotting to kill him. Fortunately, Edgar came across a cure for Albany’s blindness. A note outlining Goneril’s evil plans was all Albany needed to see. Finally, Albany recognized what a devil he was married to and for once let out his emotions when he said:

“O Goneril,
You are not worth the dust which the rude wind
Blows in your face!”
(Act IV, Sc II, Ln 29-31)

Unlike Lear and Gloucester, Albany didn’t suffer much during his bout with blindness. Not only did he survive his battle, but he lived to remain the ruler of what was once Lear’s kingdom.

*****Dramatic Irony in King Lear

The dramatic irony is two kinds:

1. Verbal Irony
2. Situational Irony

King Lear is replete with various types of irony.

Verbal Irony:

Verbal Irony occurs in the first scene of King Lear , when the king reveals his intention to divide his kingdom into three & give up the throne. But he makes the matter conditional proclaiming that the size of each daughter’s share will depend on her open declaration of love for him. The king is greatly pleased with the expression of love from her two daughters named Goneril & Regan. Ironically, the king is highly pleased with their flattery of showy love & gives a goodly portion of his kingdom to each of them. But the speech of Cordelia, the third & youngest daughter turns into a verbal irony enraging the king who disowns her cruelly and divides her portion of the lands between her two sisters.

Situational Irony:

Situational irony may be traced in the manner of Edmund, the bastard son of Earl of Gloucester, who deceives his father and plots to kill him in order to acquire the paternal society . Edgar (brother of Edmund) the victim of Edmund’s conspiracy ,is declared an outlaw by his father. At last, Edmund betrays his father also. Thus, all along Edmund’s behavior turns into ironies of behavior/situational.

Irony of the mock-trial:

Again, both situational and verbal ironies are noticeable in Act III, scene 6 where a mock-trial of Lear’s two wicked daughters is held in a chamber of a farmhouse. Lear’s madness impels him to seek retribution for his daughters’ offences. “I will arraign them straight” he declares and he appoints both Edgar and the Fool judges. Two joint-stools, identified as Goneril and Regan are placed on trial. Their offences are grievous and hence Lear asks the judges to inflict due punishments on them.

Irony in the last scene:

In the final scene Lear’s speech beginning with “come, let’s away to prison:/we two alone will sing like brids ; the cage” is just tragically ironic, revealing the fact that Lear is pathetically blind to his real condition, because he and Cordelia have more than imprisonment to fear.

Conclusion:

Thus, elements of various types of irony are scattered all through the play. Irony is a powerful weapon for a dramatist and Shakespeare has efficiently used this technique to bring out the meaning of the play and to create a tragic atmosphere which evokes a sense of pity and admiration in the minds of the audience or the readers.