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Geologists discover powerful 'river of rocks' below Caribbean Geologists have long thought tectonic plates move because they are pulled by the weight of their sinking portions and that an underlying, hot, softer layer called asthenosphere serves as a passive lubricant. But a team of geologists at the University of Houston has found that layer is actually flowi...

Scientists discover cellular stress enzyme that might play key role in neurodegenerative diseases such as ALS An enzyme called MARK2 has been identified as a key stress-response switch in cells in a study by researchers at Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. Overactivation of this type of stress response is a possible cause of injury to brain cells in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheime...

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Genetic inheritance




A short video explaining gene inheritance and demonstrating how to use a punnett square
Genetic key terms
A gamete is a s*x cell. In humans, gametes are s***m and eggs (o***s).
DNA is a large and complex polymer, which is made up of two strands forming a double helix. DNA determines the characteristics of a living organism. With the exception of identical twins, each person's DNA is unique.
Chromosomes are contained inside the cell's nucleus. These are long threads of DNA, which are made up of many genes. Chromosomes in a body cell are found in pairs. One chromosome is inherited from the mother and one is inherited from the father. The chromosomes in each pair carry the same gene in the same location.
A gene is a small section of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a particular sequence of amino acids, to make a specific protein. It is the unit of heredity, and may be copied and passed on to the next generation.
The diagram shows the relationship between the cell, its nucleus, chromosomes in the nucleus, and genes.

Alleles or variants are different versions of the same gene. For example, the gene for eye colour has an allele for blue eye colour and an allele for brown eye colour.
The genotype is the collection of alleles that determine characteristics and can be expressed as a phenotype.


Alleles may be either dominant or recessive:
A dominantallele is always expressed, even if only one copy is present. Dominant alleles are represented by a capital letter, for example, A. The allele for black fur in dogs is dominant. Only one copy of this allele is needed in order to have black fur. Two copies of the dominant allele will still produce black fur.
A recessiveallele is only expressed if the individual has two copies and does not have the dominant allele of that gene. Recessive alleles are represented by a lower case letter, for example, a. The allele for brown fur is recessive. A dog needs two copies of this allele to have brown fur.
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Researchers sequenced DNA from two mammoths that lived more than 1 million years ago, including a steppe mammoth (illustrated here), the direct ancestor to woolly mammoths. BETH ZAIKEN/CENTRE FOR PALAEOGENETICS
Mammoth molars yield the oldest DNA ever sequenced

By Michael PriceFeb. 17, 2021 , 11:00 AM
A genetic analysis of long-extinct Siberian mammoths has nearly doubled the record for the oldest DNA yet sequenced. The genetic material, from a creature that roamed frozen lands some 1.2 million years ago, pushes the study of ancient DNA closer to its theoretical limit—and reveals a new lineage of mammoth.

“I love this paper,” says Ludovic Orlando, a paleogeneticist at Paul Sabatier University whose team previously held the record for oldest DNA sequenced, from a 750,000-year-old horse. “I have been waiting since 2013 [for] our world record for the oldest genome to be broken.”

Genetic material breaks down relatively quickly in most environments. The oldest DNA sequenced from humans in Africa dates to about 15,000 years ago; in Europe, scientists have sequenced DNA from a Neanderthal that lived some 120,000 years ago. But the DNA of living things buried in permafrost can persist for much, much longer, as the deep freeze slows chemical degradation.

In the 1970s, Russian paleontologist Andrei Sher discovered a trove of frozen remains at several sites in northeastern Siberia, including a trio of mammoths. Based on the orientation of magnetic materials in the surrounding rocks and the types of rodents found buried alongside them, the researchers estimated that the mammoths had lived about 1.2 million, 1 million, and 700,000 years ago.

The researchers behind the new study drilled out tiny samples from the molar of each mammoth—about a pinch of salt’s worth—and attempted to extract DNA. The ravages of time had degraded the DNA into many

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