English Literature, Language and Research Help Center

Everyone

Quotations :

"Beauty is truth, truth is beauty"---John Keats

"A thing of beauty is a joy for ever"---John Keats

"To be or not to be that is the question"---Shakespeare

"Cowards die many times before their deaths"---Shakespeare

"Brevity is the soul of wit"---Shakespeare

"Example is better than precept"---S.Smiles

"Life is not life without delight"---Rabindranath Tagore

"If winter comes, can spring be far behind?"---P.B.Shelley

"Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought"---P.B.Shelley

"Justice delayed is justice denied"---Gladstone

"Justice hurried is justice buried"---Gladstone

"Pain is the outcome of sin"---Gautam Buddha

"To err is human, to forgive is devine"---Alexander Pope

"Fools rush in where angels fear to tread"---Alexander Pope

"A little learning is a dangerous thing"---Alexander Pope

"He prayeth best who loveth best"---Coleridge

"Eureka! Eureka! (I have found it)"---Archimedes

"Man is by nature a political animal"---Aristotle

"The child is the father of a man"---William Wordsworth

"Government of the people, by the people, for the people"---Abraham Lincon

"Opportunity makes a thief"---Francis Bacon

"Man is born free and everywhere he is in chains"---Rousseau

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English Essay is written in Formal Language, which means one can not write it in casual style of spoken English or in informal writing style followed in daily written based conversations between individuals. Here are few rules to which should be followed while writing English Essay.

Rule #1...
Do not use Contractions.

Contractions are not usually used in formal writing, even though they are very common in spoken English.
In formal writing, you should spell out contractions.

Examples:

Cannot instead of can’t
Have not instead of haven’t
Will not instead of won’t
Could not instead of couldn’t
Is not instead of isn’t

Note: Contractions CAN be used if you are quoting someone’s exact words in your writing.

Rules #2.
Do not start sentences with words like
🚫and,
🚫so,
🚫but,
🚫also

Here are some good transition words and phrases to use in formal writing:
Nevertheless
Additionally
However
In addition
As a result of
Although

Rule #3...
Spell out numbers less than one hundred

Examples:
Nineteen
Twenty-two
Seventy-eight
Six

Rule #4....
Write in third person point of view
In formal writing, we usually do not use first person or second person unless it is a quote.

Avoid using:
I
You
We
Us

Examples:
🚫You can purchase a car for under $10,000.
One can purchase a car for under $10,000.

OR
A car can be purchased for under $10,000.

🚫You will probably see an elephant on an African safari.
One may see elephants on an African safari.
OR
Elephants are a common sight on African safaris.

🚫We decided to invest in the company.
The group decided to invest in the company.

Rule #5.
Avoid using too much passive voice
In formal writing it is better to use an active voice.

Passive sentences:
1)The bone was eaten by the dog.
2)The research was completed by the students in 2009.

Active sentences:

The dog ate the bone.
The students completed the research in 2009.
In 2009, the students completed the research.

Rule #6
Avoid using slang, and exaggeration (hyperboles)

Slang is common in informal writing and spoken English. Slang is particular to a certain region or area.

Examples of slang:

awesome/cool
okay/ok
check it out
in a nutshell

Rule #7
Avoid abbreviations and acronyms.
If you use an acronym or abbreviation, write it out the first time

Examples:

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
National Accountability Bureau (NAB)

For abbreviations, write the complete word the first time, then use the abbreviation.

Examples:
✅influenza => flu
✅United States of America => U.S.A or USA
✅tablespoon => tbsp.

Do not use slang abbreviations or symbols that you would use in friendly emails and texts.

Examples:
🚫LOL (laugh out loud)
🚫ttyl (talk to you later)
🚫&
🚫b/c (because)
🚫w/o (without)
🚫w/ (with)

Rule #8.
Always write in complete sentences.

Rule #9.
Write longer, more complex sentences.

Remember, Esaay is an exam of your writing skills, knowledge and command on grammar. So, you should make it a presentable piece with long, complex and good sentences rather than some short simple sentences written by school students.```

Difference Between Linguistics and Literature
Linguistics vs Literature

The key difference between linguistics and literature is that linguistics refers to the systematic study of a language whereas literature can be defined as the study of written works within a language. This clearly highlights that the main difference between these two fields of study are grounded on structure and content though both have the commonality of language as a basis for their works. This article will attempt to define these two terms, linguistics and literature, while providing an understanding of the differences that exist within the two fields.

What is Linguistics?

The human languages which enable us to communicate with one another have very systematic structures. Linguistics is a field that studies these structural aspects of a language. Hence, it can be defined as the systematic and scientific study of a language. It encompasses the study of language in relation to its nature, organization, origin, contextual impact, cognitive and dialectical formation. Linguists are concerned with the nature of languages, their systematic component, the commonalities and differences that exist among human languages and the cognitive processes that come into play.

The field of linguistics is made up of a number of parts that create the totality of linguistics. They are phonetics (the study of the physical nature of speech sounds), phonology (the study of the cognitive nature of speech sounds), morphology (the study of word formation), syntax (the study of sentence formation), semantics (the study of meaning) and pragmatics (the study of the usage of language). Other than these there are other disciplines that are connected to linguistics such as psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, dialectology, ethno-linguistics, etc.

What is literature?

Literature includes written works that belong to many genres ranging from poetry and dramas to novels. Literature is a work of art. It is a creation of a world that allows the reader to not only dive into an alien world, but also allows the reader to reflect on various issues. It is not merely a recital of the ordinary speech but contains artistic value. There are different forms of literature mainly prose and poetry. Prose includes dramas, novels and short stories whereas poetry refers to a more melodious and rhythmic work of art. Unlike in linguistics, literature is devoid of rigidity in the structure and its relationships. It is not limited to a certain sphere and has a vast canvas. If we look at the English literature, the literary works are divided into different eras also known as literary periods in English literature for the purpose of studying, such as the renaissance, the romantic period, the Victorian period so on and so forth. For each period there are contemporary writers, poets and playwrights that were prominent figures of the time in terms of their literary work. For example, in the Victorian period Alfred Lord Tennyson, The Bronte sisters, Robert Browning and Thomas Hardy were prominent figures who gained popularity either among the societies at the time or else later in for the significance of their contribution to literature.

What is the difference between Linguistics and Literature?

• While linguistics is more of a systematic study of language and human communication, overall, literature takes a different turn, making literary works its material for study.

• A key contrast between the two disciplines stems from the systematic nature associated to the fields and subjectivity. In linguistics, there is less room for subjective ideas and it is a study that is very scientific and objective whereas literature is more subjective and is vast.

• However, both fields are built on the component of language as their main source.

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1. – spiritual, values, ideal
2. - science/ what is real
3. - senses
4. - innate
5. - choice,decision,unique
6. - specialization, basic, fundamental
7. - classic, literature, traditional
8. - activation of skills
9. -child-centered
10. - perfection
11. - aetheist, unknown
12. - passionate emotions
13. - pleasure
14. - humans
15. - prior knowledge activation
16. - solution to problem
17. - rationalization of church
18. - usage/ utility

*100 MODERN NOVELS AND THEIR PUBLICATION DATES*
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1. Ulysses, James Joyce (1922)
2. The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald (1925)
3. A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, James Joyce (1916)
4. Lo**ta, Vladimir Nabokov (1958)
5. Brave New World, Aldous Huxley (1932)
6. The Sound and the Fury, William Faulkner (1929)
7. Catch-22, Joseph Heller (1961)
8. Darkness at Noon, Arthur Koestler (1941)
9. Sons and Lovers, D. H. Lawrence (1913)
10. The Grapes of Wrath, John Steinbeck (1939)
11. Under the Volcano, Malcolm Lowry (1947)
12. The Way of All Flesh, Samuel Butler (1903)
13. 1984, George Orwell (1949)
14. I, Claudius, Robert Graves (1934)
15. To the Lighthouse, Virginia Woolf (1927)
16. An American Tragedy, Theodore Dreiser (1925)
17. The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter, Carson McCullers (1940)
18. Slaughterhouse-Five, Kurt Vonnegut (1969)
19. Invisible Man, Ralph Ellison (1952)
20. Native Son, Richard Wright (1940)
21. Henderson the Rain King, Saul Bellow (1959)
22. Appointment in Samarra, John O'Hara (1934)
23. U.S.A. (trilogy), John Dos Passos (1937—trilogy completed)
24. Winesburg, Ohio, Sherwood Anderson (1919)
25. A Passage to India, E. M. Forster (1924)
26. The Wings of the Dove, Henry James (1902)
27. The Ambassadors, Henry James (1903)
28. Tender Is the Night, F. Scott Fitzgerald (1934)
29. The Studs Lonigan Trilogy, James T. Farrell (1935)
30. The Good Soldier, Ford Madox Ford (1915)
31. Animal Farm, George Orwell (1946)
32. The Golden Bowl, Henry James (1904)
33. Sister Carrie, Theodore Dreiser (1900)
34. A Handful of Dust, Evelyn Waugh (1934)
35. As I Lay Dying, William Faulkner (1930)
36. All the King's Men, Robert Penn Warren (1946)
37. The Bridge of San Luis Rey, Thornton Wilder (1927)
38. Howards End, E. M. Forster (1910)
39. Go Tell It on the Mountain, James Baldwin (1953)
40. The Heart of the Matter, Graham Greene (1948)
41. Lord of the Flies, William Golding (1954)
42. Deliverance, James Dickey (1969)
43. A Dance to the Music of Time (series), Anthony Powell (1975—series completed)
44. Point Counter Point, Aldous Huxley (1928)
45. The Sun Also Rises, Ernest Hemingway (1926)
46. The Secret Agent, Joseph Conrad (1907)
47. Nostromo, Joseph Conrad(1904)
48. The Rainbow, D. H. Lawrence (1915)
49. Women in Love, D. H. Lawrence (1921)
50. Tropic of Cancer, Henry Miller (1934)
51. The Naked and the Dead, Norman Mailer (1948)
52. Portnoy's Complaint, Philip Roth (1969)
53. Pale Fire, Vladimir Nabokov (1962)
54. Light in August, William Faulkner (1932)
55. On the Road, Jack Kerouac (1957)
56. The Maltese Falcon, Dashiell Hammett (1930)
57. Parade's End, Ford Madox Ford (1950)
58. The Age of Innocence, Edith Wharton (1920)
59. Zuleika Dobson, Max Beerbohm (1911)
60. The Moviegoer, Walker Percy (1961)
61. Death Comes for the Archbishop, Willa Cather (1927)
62. From Here to Eternity, James Jones (1951)
63. The Wapshot Chronicles, John Cheever (1957)
64. The Catcher in the Rye, J. D. Salinger (1951)
65. A Clockwork Orange, Anthony Burgess (1962)
66. Of Human Bo***ge, W. Somerset Maugham (1915)
67. Heart of Darkness, Joseph Conrad (1902)
68. Main Street, Sinclair Lewis (1920)
69. The House of Mirth, Edith Wharton (1905)
70. The Alexandria Quartet, Lawrence Durrell (1960—series completed)
71. A High Wind in Jamaica, Richard Hughes (1929)
72. A House for Mr. Biswas, V. S. Naipaul (1961)
73. The Day of the Locust, Nathanael West (1939)
74. A Farewell to Arms, Ernest Hemingway (1929)
75. Scoop, Evelyn Waugh (1938)
76. The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie, Muriel Spark (1961)
77. Finnegans Wake, James Joyce (1939)
78. Kim, Rudyard Kipling (1901)
79. A Room with a View, E. M. Forster (1908)
80. Brideshead Revisited, Evelyn Waugh (1945)
81. The Adventures of Augie March, Saul Bellow (1953)
82. Angle of Repose, Wallace Stegner (1971)
83. A Bend in the River, V. S. Naipaul (1979)
84. The Death of the Heart, Elizabeth Bowen (1938)
85. Lord Jim, Joseph Conrad (1900)
86. Ragtime, E. L. Doctorow (1975)
87. The Old Wives' Tale, Arnold Bennett (1908)
88. The Call of the Wild, Jack London (1903)
89. Loving, Henry Green (1945)
90. Midnight's Children, Salman Rushdie (1981)
91. To***co Road, Erskine Caldwell (1933)
92. Ironweed, William Kennedy (1983)
93. The Magus, John Fowles (1966)
94. Wide Sargasso Sea, Jean Rhys (1966)
95. Under the Net, Iris Murdoch (1954)
96. Sophie's Choice, William Styron (1979)
97. The Sheltering Sky, Paul Bowles (1949)
98. The Postman Always Rings Twice, James M. Cain (1934)
99. The Ginger Man, J. P. Donleavy (1955)
100. The Magnificent Ambersons, Booth Tarkington (1918)

There are seventeen types of essays.

Types of Essay

Definition Essay
As the name suggests, a definition type of essay defines different things, ideas, and perceptions.

Narrative Essay
A narrative essay is a narration like a short story. It is, however, different from a short story in that it is written in an essay format.

Descriptive Essay
A descriptive essay describes something to make readers feel, smell, see, taste, or hear what is described.

Expository Essay
An expository essay exposes things in detail to make readers understand without any complications.

Persuasive Essay
A persuasive essay is meant to convince the target audience to do something or not do something.

Argumentative Essay
An argumentative essay is meant to present arguments in the favor of something. It has an additional fourth body paragraph that is meant to present opposite arguments.

Analytical Essay
An analytical essay analyzes something, such as in literature an analytical essay analyzes a piece of literature from different angles.

Comparison and Contrast Essay
A comparison and contrast essay makes either a comparison, a contrast, or both between two different or similar things.

Cause and Effect Essay
A cause and effect essay makes readers understand the cause of things, and their effects on other things.

Critical Essay
A critical essay is written on literary pieces to evaluate them on the basis of their merits or demerits.

Process Essay
A process essay outlines a process of making or breaking or doing something that readers understand fully and are able to do it after reading it.

Synthesis Essay
A synthesis essay means to synthesize different ideas to make a judgement about their merit and demerits.

Explicatory Essay
An explicatory essay is meant to explain a piece of literature. It is often written about poems, short stories, and novels.

Rhetorical Analysis Essay
A rhetorical analysis essay evaluates a speech or a piece of rhetoric on the basis of rhetorical strategies and devices used in it.

Review Essay
A review essay discusses the merits and demerits of a book and evaluates it through a review.

Simple Essay
A simple essay is just a five-paragraph essay that is written on any topic after it is specified.

Research Essay
A research essay revolves around a research question that is meant to answer some specific question through a research of the relevant literature.

Difference between Classicism, Neoclassicism and Romanticism

Classicism:
Classicism is aesthetic attitudes and principles based on culture, art and literature of ancient Greece and Rome, and characterized by emphasis on form, simplicity, proportion, and restrained emotion.

Characteristics of Classicism are belief in reason, civilized, modern, sophisticated, interest in urban society, human nature, love, satire, expression of acceptance, moral truth, realism, beleif in good and evil, religion, philosophy, generic obstruction, impersonal objectivity, public themes, formal correctness, idea of order.

Neo-classicism:
Neo-classicism was the trend prevailing during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, characterized by the introduction and widespread use of Greek orders and decorative motifs, the subordination of detail to simple, strongly geometric overall compositions, the presence of light colors or shades, frequent shallowness of relief in ornamental treatment of facades, and the absence of textural effects. The period of Neo-Classicism relies heavily on mimicking Greek art. During the time period, the concept of naturalism was a main concern. Artists especially made great efforts to model the ways in which the ancients portrayed bodies and emotions in their works of art.

Romanticism:
Romanticism emerged as a reaction against Neoclassicism. The Neoclassical age emphasized on reason and logic. The Romantic period wanted to break away from the traditions and conventions that were dear to the Neoclassical age and make way for individuality and experimentation. One of the fundamentals of Romanticism is the belief in the natural goodness of man, the idea that man in a state of nature would behave well but is hindered by civilization.

Characteristics of Romanticism are belief in feelings, imagination, Intuition, Primitive, Medieval, natural modes, rural solitude, aesthetic, spiritual, value of external nature, love for vision, mysteriousness, idea, infinite, myth-making, beauty, truth, faith in progress, belief in man and goodness, individual speculation, revelation, concrete particulars, subjectivity, private themes, individual expressiveness, intensity, curiosity, images, symbols, common language, self-consciousness, romantic Hellenism.

Difference between Classicism and Romanticism

Romanticism emerged as a response to Classicism.

Classicism stressed on reason. Romanticism on imagination.

Classicism follow the three unities of time , place and action. Romanticism only follows the unity of action, but does not follow the unities of time, place.

Romanticism uses simple diction of common men from their everyday life. Classicism uses strict, rigid and logical diction and theme.

Classicists thought of the world as having a rigid and stern structure, the romanticists thought of the world as a place to express their ideas and believes.

Classicism was based on the idea that nature and human nature could be understood by reason and thought. Classicist believed that nature was, a self-contained machine, like a watch, whose laws of operation could be rationally understood. Romanticists viewed nature as mysterious and ever changing. Romantic writes believed that nature is an ever changing living organism, whose laws we will never fully understand.

Classicists thought that it was literature's function to show the everyday values of humanity and the laws of human existence. Their idea was that classicism upheld tradition, often to the point of resisting change, because tradition seemed a reliable testing ground for those laws. As for the Romantics, they wrote about how man has no boundaries and endless possibilities. The Romantics stressed the human potential for social progress and spiritual growth.

6 Reasons Why Literature Is So Important

"Literature Is One Of The Most Interesting And Significant Expressions Of Humanity."
-P. T. Barnum

Today, there are too many people who believe that literature is simply not important or underestimate its abilities to stand the test of time and give us great knowledge. There is a stigma in society that implies one who is more inclined toward science and math will somehow be more successful in life, and that one who is more passionate toward literature and other art forms will be destined to a life of low-paying jobs and unsatisfying careers. Somewhere along the line, the world has come to think that literature is insignificant. To me, however, literature serves as a gateway to learning of the past and expanding my knowledge and understanding of the world. Here are just a few reasons why literature is important.

1. Expanding horizons

First and foremost, literature opens our eyes and makes us see more than just what the front door shows. It helps us realize the wide world outside, surrounding us. With this, we begin to learn, ask questions, and build our intuitions and instincts. We expand our minds.

2. Building critical thinking skills

Many of us learn what critical thinking is in our language arts classes. When we read, we learn to look between the lines. We are taught to find symbols, make connections, find themes, learn about characters. Reading expands these skills, and we begin to look at a sentence with a larger sense of detail and depth and realize the importance of hidden meanings so that we may come to a conclusion.

3. A leap into the past

History and literature are entwined with each other. History is not just about power struggles, wars, names, and dates. It is about people who are products of their time, with their own lives. Today the world is nothing like it was in the 15th century; people have changed largely. Without literature, we would not know about our past, our families, the people who came before and walked on the same ground as us.

4. Appreciation for other cultures and beliefs

Reading about history, anthropology, or religious studies provides a method of learning about cultures and beliefs other than our own. It allows you to understand and experience these other systems of living and other worlds. We get a view of the inside looking out, a personal view and insight into the minds and reasoning of someone else. We can learn, understand, and appreciate it.

5. Better writing skills

When you open a book, when your eyes read the words and you take in its contents, do you ask yourself: How did this person imagine and write this? Well, many of those authors, poets, or playwrights used literature to expand their writing.

6. Addressing humanity

All literature, whether it be poems, essays, novels, or short stories, helps us address human nature and conditions which affect all people. These may be the need for growth, doubts and fears of success and failure, the need for friends and family, the goodness of compassion and empathy, trust, or the realization of imperfection. We learn that imperfection is not always bad and that normal can be boring. We learn that life must be lived to the fullest. We need literature in order to connect with our own humanity.

Literature is important and necessary. It provides growth, strengthens our minds and gives us the ability to think outside the box.

Modern Critical Theories.

1. Structuralism:

Structuralism was a literary theory which is based on "a system of ideas used in the study of language, literature, art, anthropology and sociology that emphasizes the importance of the basic structure and relationship of that particular subject. It is primarily concerned with understanding how language works as a system of meaning production. How does language function as a kind of meaning machine. It is a 20th century intellectual approach. Ferdinand desassure was the founder of structuralism. According to De Saussure, Every language has different signs and these signs are composite of Signifier and signified. These Signs give the meaning to the text. We cannot study Text in Isolation.He gave the concept of Langue and parole. Langue is the grammar rules, system and structure of the language.
Parole is the act of utterances.

2. Post structuralism::

It is a late 20th century approach in philosophy and literary criticism. It is opposition to the structuralism. Jacques derrida and Michael Foucault are the founder of post structuralism. It denies the existence of universal principles which create meanings and coherence. It rejects the theory of Ferdinand Desaussure of Signifier and Signified. It examines the other sources of meanings I.e reader, cultural norms and other literature etc. Here readers replace the author. It is simultaneously rejection of Structuralism. Here no meaning and sign are stable. There is nothing outside the text.

3. Russian Formalism:

Russian Formalism was developed in 1910 in Russia .its official beginning was marked by an establishment of two organization, the moscow linguistic circle and the society for the study of poetic language (OPOYAZ).
For formalists,literary criticism is separate from other forms of analysis.it focuses on how language works. Formalists study how literature works not what literature is about. They were primarily interested in the way the literary text achieve their effects and in establishing a scientific bases for study of literature. I can say that Formalism is a critical approach that analyse , interprete and evaluate the inherent features of a text. These Features include not only grammar and syntax but also literary devices such as meter and figure of speech.
In the first half of the 20th century , Russian and Czech literary theorists worked to develop a theory of literariness: what made literary text different from , for instance, govt reports, newspapers articles etc. Formalist says that literature distinguishes itself from non literary language because it employs a range of devices that have a defamiliarization effect. Here we can study text in isolation. There is nothing extra textual. The text is the most authentic itself. We pay utmost attention on the forms of the text. We focus on language and study linguistic devices in order to get maximum meaning of the text.

4. Reader Response Criticism:

Reader response criticism analyzes the reader's role in the production of the meaning. the text itself has no meanings until it is read by a reader. Here reader is a producer rather than a consumer of meanings.
It is a school of criticism which emerged in 1970,focused on finding meaning in the act of reading itself and examining the ways individual readers or community of readers experience texts.

Reader-response criticism is a school of literary theory that focuses on the reader and their experience of a literary work, in contrast to other schools and theories that focus attention primarily on the author or the content and form of the work. It argues that a text has no meaning before a reader experiences and—reads—it.
Practitioners: I-A-Richards, Louise Rosenblatt ,Walter Gibson ,Norman Holland .

5. Psychoanalytical Criticism:
Sigmund Freud developed the psychoanalytic theory of personality development, which argued that personality is formed through conflicts among three fundamental structures of the human mind: the id, ego, and superego.
This theory works on the psychology. It adopts the methods of reading employed by Freud and later theorists to interpret texts,like dreams, express the secret unconscious desires and anxieties of the author ,that a leterary work is a manifestation of the author's own neuroses. Psychoanalysis attempts to understand the workings and source of unconscious desires, needs, anxieties and behaviour of writers,readers and specific cultural phenomena. They want to understand human behavioural patterns and cultural behaviour patterns. Through the scope of a psychoanalytic lens, humans are described as having sexual and aggressive drives. Psychoanalytic theorists believe that human behavior is deterministic. It is governed by irrational forces, and the unconscious, as well as instinctual and biological drives. Due to this deterministic nature, psychoanalytic theorists do not believe in free will.

Practitioner:Sigmund Freud ,Ernest Jones .

6. Deconstruction:

Deconstruction is a philosophical critical approach to textual analysis that is m0st closely related with the work of Jacques Derrida. He gives the concept of binary opposition. The deconstructive method is used to show that the meaning of a literary text is not fixed or stable. Jacques derrida says that all communication is characterized by uncertainity because there is no definitive link between a signifier(a word)and signified(object). once a text is written it ceases to have a meaning until a reader reads it. There is no solid meaning to the text. There is no possibility of absolute truth.
I can Say Deconstruction is an approach to understanding the relationship between text and meaning. Derrida's approach consisted of conducting readings of texts with an ear to what runs counter to the intended meaning or structural unity of a particular text.

7. Feminism:

The concept of feminism in general has been concerned to an analysis of the trend of male domination of the society ; the general attitude of male towards female, the ways of improving the condition of women. In literature, It emerged in 1960. It was the movement in favour of women.
''Jane Austin ,Francis Burney ,Virginia Woolf, George Eliot " were the famous Feminist writers. Feminism is a belief that women should have equal rights to men.

First wave: kate millet was concerned mainly to the treatment of women at the hands of male.
Marry ellman's:thinking about women.
Kate millet:sexual politics. feminine(1840-80) in which women wrote in an effort to equal the intellectual achievements of the male culture and internalized its assumptions about female nature.the distinguishing sign of this period is the male pseudonym.women chose male pseudonyms as a way of coping with a double literary standard.

2nd phase:feminist(1880-1920)in which women protest male values,advocate separatist 'sisterhoods'.they used literature to dramatize the ordeals of wronged womanhood.
It shows the direct analysis of women to literature.female writers and their significanc was studied. It is Also called gynocriticism.
Elaine showalter:a literature of their own(1920).
3rd wave:female (1920) in which women create 'female writing' in self-discovery.

8.New historicism:
New Historicism is a literary theory based on the idea that literature should be studied and interpret within the context of both the history of the author and the history of the critic. It is based on literary criticism of stwephan Greenblatt and influenced by the philosophy of michwael Foucault , new historicism acknowledges not only that a work of literature is influenced by its author's times and circumstances but that the critic's response to that work is also influenced by his environment,beliefs and prejudice. It examines both how the writer's times affected the work and how the work reflects the writer's times.
New historicists don't just want to appreciate literature through history,they want to know history better through literature.
New Historicism is a form of literary theory whose goal is to understand intellectual history through literature, and literature through its cultural context, which follows the 1950s field of history of ideas and refers to itself as a form of "Cultural Poetics"

9.Post colonialism:

Post Colonialism is the critical analysis of history, culture, literature and modes of discourse, specific to the former colonies of engwland, Spain ,France and other European colonial powers. It focuses on third world countries of Africa ,Asia ,Australia and New Zealand . Post colonial literatures are a result of the interaction between imperial culture and the complex of indigenous cultural practices. It is also used to analyse the texts and other cultural discourses that emerged after the end of the colonial period.
It rejects the master-narrative of western imperialism.
It concerns with the formation of the colonial and post colonial subject.
Post-colonialism is simply a lens through which we study literature that is set in colonized countries or deals with post-colonial issues.
Edward Said, Homi k Bhabbha, Chinua Achebe and Joseph Conrad are the Few post colonial writers.

10. Modernism:

Modernism is a period in literary history which started around the early 1900s and continued until the early 1940s. Emily Dickinson and Walt Whitman are thought to be the mother and father of the movement. According to M.H.Abrams; The term modernism is widely used to identify new and distinative features in the subjects, forms, concepts and style of literature and other art in the early decades of the present century.

T.S.Eliot is considered as one of the most important modernist poet. His two prominent poems where eliot shows his modern orientations are The love song of J.alfred Prufrock and The Waste Land.
Modernism is the rejection of traditional 19th century norms and earlier contentions and represented by orientation towards fragmentation, free verse, allusions and victorian and romantic writing..

11. Post modernism:

A late 20th century style and concept in the arts, architecture and criticism which represents a departure from modernism and is characterized by the self-conscious use of earlier styles and conventions, a mixing of different artistic styles and media ,and a general distrust of theories. Postmodern literature is literature characterized by reliance on narrative techniques such as fragmentation, paradox, and the unreliable narrator; and is often defined as a style or a trend which emerged in the post–World War II era.
Jean Boudrillard, Jacques Derrida, Michael Foucault, Richard Rorty, Fredrick Jameson are the few famous post-modernists.Modern Critical Theories.