25/11/2025
A. Foundations of Criminology
1. Criminology: The scientific study of crime, criminal behavior, the causes of crime (etiology), and societal reactions to crime.
2. Criminal: A person who has committed a crime.
3. Crime: An act or omission that violates a law and is punishable by the state.
4. Deviance: Behavior that violates social norms, which may or may not be criminal.
5. Delinquency: Minor crime, especially that committed by young people.
6. Criminality: The state or quality of being criminal; a propensity to commit crime.
7. Etiology: The study of the causes or origins of crime.
8. Etiology of Crime: The specific study of the factors that cause criminal behavior.
9. Victimology: The study of the victims of crime, including their relationships with offenders and the criminal justice system.
10. Penology: The study of the punishment of crime and prison management.
11. Sociology of Law: The study of how social factors influence the creation and enforcement of laws.
12. Criminal Justice System: The aggregate of institutions (police, courts, corrections) designed to manage accused and convicted criminals.
13. Law Enforcement: The system by which members of society act to enforce the law by discovering, deterring, and rehabilitating offenders.
14. Public Safety: The welfare and protection of the general public, often a primary goal of the criminal justice system.
15. Criminalistics: The scientific analysis of physical evidence for use in legal proceedings.
16. Forensic Science: The application of scientific principles to matters of law.
17. Criminal Law: The body of law that defines criminal offenses, regulates the apprehension, charging, and trial of suspected persons, and fixes penalties.
18. Criminal Procedure: The rules and processes that govern the enforcement of criminal law.
19. Evidence: Anything presented to a court to prove the truth of a fact, including testimony, documents, and physical objects.
20. Jurisprudence: The theory or philosophy of law.
B. Schools of Thought in Criminology
21. Classical Criminology: A school of thought emphasizing that individuals have free will and choose to commit crime, and that punishment should be proportionate, certain, and swift to deter criminal behavior.
22. Neoclassical Criminology: A modification of classical theory that allows for mitigating circumstances (e.g., insanity, age) in assigning culpability and punishment.
23. Positivist Criminology: A school of thought that applies the scientific method to study criminal behavior, arguing that crime is determined by biological, psychological, or social factors beyond an individual's control.
24. Sociological Positivism: A branch of positivism that focuses on social structures (e.g., poverty, social disorganization) as the primary causes of crime.
25. Biological Positivism: A branch of positivism that focuses on inherited, genetic, or physiological factors as causes of criminal behavior.
26. Psychological Positivism: A branch of positivism that focuses on personality, learning, and mental processes as causes of criminal behavior.
27. Free Will: The concept that individuals have the capacity to make choices and are therefore responsible for their actions.
28. Determinism: The philosophical doctrine that all events, including human action, are ultimately determined by causes external to the will.
29. Hedonistic Calculus: The idea that individuals weigh the potential pleasure (benefits) against the pain (costs) of their actions before behaving.
30. Deterrence: The use of punishment to discourage criminal behavior.
31. Specific Deterrence: Punishment aimed at preventing the individual offender from committing future crimes.
32. General Deterrence: Punishment aimed at preventing the general public from committing crimes by making an example of the offender.
33. Utilitarianism: A philosophy that the best action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or utility, often associated with classical criminology.
34. Atavism: The theory that criminals are biological "throwbacks" to an earlier, more primitive stage of human evolution.
35. Criminal Anthropology: The study of "criminal man" based on physical characteristics, pioneered by Cesare Lombroso.
36. Phrenology: The discredited theory that the shape of a person's skull reveals their character and mental capacity.
37. Somatotyping: The classification of human beings into types according to body build and physique, some of which were thought to be associated with criminality.
C. Crime Causation (Criminal Etiology)
38. Biological Explanations: Theories that locate the cause of crime within the individual's biological makeup.
39. Psychological Explanations: Theories that locate the cause of crime within the individual's mental processes and personality.
40. Psychiatric Explanations: Theories that attribute criminal behavior to mental illness or psychopathology.
41. Sociological Explanations: Theories that locate the cause of crime in the social environment, structures, and processes.
42. Trait Theories: Theories that suggest certain biological or psychological characteristics predispose individuals to criminal behavior.
43. Social Disorganization Theory: A theory that crime is more likely in communities with weak social institutions and the absence of social control.
44. Strain Theory: A theory that crime occurs when there is a gap between culturally prescribed goals (e.g., wealth) and the legitimate means to achieve them.
45. Anomie: A state of normlessness or social instability resulting from a breakdown of standards and values, often linked to strain theory.
46. Cultural Deviance Theory: A theory that conformity to the prevailing cultural norms of lower-class society causes crime.
47. Differential Association Theory: A theory that criminal behavior is learned through interaction with others, including techniques, motives, and attitudes.
48. Labeling Theory: A theory that deviance is not inherent in an act, but instead focuses on the tendency of majorities to negatively label minorities or those seen as deviant.
49. Social Control Theory: A theory that explores why people do not commit crime, focusing on the bonds that connect individuals to society (attachment, commitment, involvement, belief).
50. Conflict Theory: A theory that crime is a product of class struggle and that laws are created by the powerful to control the less powerful.
51. Rational Choice Theory: A modern classical theory that offenders rationally calculate the costs and benefits of committing a crime before acting.
52. Routine Activities Theory: A theory that crime occurs when a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian converge in time and space.
53. Life-Course Theory: A theory that focuses on the development of criminal behavior over a person's life, recognizing turning points and trajectories.
54. Neurocriminology: The study of the brain and its connection to criminal behavior.
55. Twin Studies: Research comparing the criminality of identical and fraternal twins to assess genetic influence.
56. Adoption Studies: Research comparing the criminality of adopted children with their biological and adoptive parents.
57. XYY Syndrome: A genetic condition once (erroneously) thought to be linked to aggressive criminal behavior.
58. Psychopathy: A personality disorder characterized by persistent antisocial behavior, impaired empathy, and bold, disinhibited traits.
59. Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD): A mental disorder characterized by a long-term pattern of disregard for, or violation of, the rights of others.
60. IQ and Crime: The debated hypothesis that lower intelligence is a correlate of criminal behavior.
D. Crime, Its Elements, and Classifications
61. Actus Reus: The "guilty act," or the physical element of a crime.
62. Mens Rea: The "guilty mind," or the mental intent to commit a crime.
63. Concurrence: The requirement that the actus reus and mens rea occur together.
64. Causation: The requirement that the defendant's act caused the harm or result.
65. Harm: The injury or loss suffered by the victim, which the law seeks to prevent.
66. Legality: The principle that a person cannot be punished for an act that was not a crime when it was committed.
67. Punishment: The penalty imposed for breaking the law.
68. Felony: A serious crime, typically punishable by imprisonment for more than one year or by death.
69. Misdemeanor: A minor crime, less serious than a felony, punishable by a fine or incarceration in a local jail for less than a year.
70. Infraction: A minor violation of a rule or law, typically punishable by a fine.
71. Inchoate Crimes: Crimes that are committed in preparation for another crime (e.g., attempt, solicitation, conspiracy).
72. Crimes Against Persons: Crimes that involve harm or threat of harm to an individual (e.g., murder, assault, r**e).
73. Crimes Against Property: Crimes that involve interference with the property of another (e.g., theft, burglary, arson).
74. White-Collar Crime: Non-violent crimes committed by individuals or corporations for financial gain, often involving deception.
75. Organized Crime: Crimes committed by structured groups typically involving the provision of illegal goods and services.
76. Victimless Crimes: Crimes that lack a direct, obvious victim (e.g., drug use, prostitution), where the harm is primarily to the offender.
77. Hate Crimes: Crimes motivated by bias against a race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or ethnicity.
78. Cybercrime: Crimes that involve a computer and a network.
79. Legal Classification of Crime: Categorizing crimes based on legal statutes, such as felonies vs. misdemeanors.
80. Criminological Classification of Crime: Categorizing crimes based on the nature of the behavior or the offender (e.g., violent, property, public order).
81. Mala in Se: Acts that are considered inherently wrong or evil (e.g., murder, r**e).
82. Mala Prohibita: Acts that are crimes only because they are prohibited by statute (e.g., parking violations, jaywalking).
E. Classification of Criminals
83. Acute Criminal: A person who commits a crime due to a specific, temporary situation or impulse.
84. Chronic Criminal: A person who repeatedly engages in criminal behavior.
85. Habitual Delinquent: An offender who has developed a pattern of repeated criminal behavior.
86. Professional Criminal: A person who makes a living from criminal activities and has highly developed skills.
87. Organized Criminal: A member of a criminal organization.
88. White-Collar Criminal: An individual who commits crimes in the course of their professional or business activities.
89. Situational Criminal: An offender who does not have a deep commitment to crime but commits one when the opportunity arises.
90. Accidental Criminal: An individual who commits a crime unintentionally or without premeditation.
91. Passionate Criminal: An individual who commits a crime in a fit of passion or strong emotion.
92. Criminal by Imitation: An individual who commits a crime after observing others.
93. Psychopathic Criminal: An offender whose criminal behavior is linked to psychopathic personality traits.
94. Insane Criminal: An offender who, due to a mental disease or defect, lacks the capacity to understand the wrongfulness of their actions.
95. Hedonistic Criminal: An offender motivated by the pursuit of pleasure or the avoidance of pain.
96. Political Criminal: An individual who commits crimes for ideological or political reasons.
97. Recidivist: A repeat offender; someone who relapses into criminal behavior.
98. First-Time Offender: An individual with no prior criminal convictions.
99. Juvenile Offender: A minor who commits a crime.
F. The Criminal Justice System & Process
96. Arrest: The act of detaining a person by legal authority.
97. Booking: The police administrative process of recording an arrest.
98. Bail: The temporary release of an accused person awaiting trial, sometimes on condition that a sum of money be lodged to guarantee their appearance in court.
99. Arraignment: The court proceeding where the defendant is formally charged and enters a plea.
100. Plea Bargaining: The negotiation between the defense and prosecution where the defendant pleads guilty in exchange for a lesser charge or a lighter sentence.
101. Trial: A formal examination of evidence before a judge and jury to decide guilt or innocence.
102. Adjudication: The legal process of resolving a dispute or making a judgment.
103. Sentencing: The pronouncement of a punishment by a judge following a conviction.
104. Probation: A court order that releases a convicted offender into the community under supervision instead of sending them to prison.
105. Incarceration: Imprisonment; confinement in a jail or prison.
106. Parole: The conditional release of a prisoner before the completion of their sentence, under supervision.
107. Rehabilitation: The process of reforming an offender to prevent future criminal behavior.
108. Reintegration: The process of re-entering society as a law-abiding citizen after serving a sentence.
109. Restorative Justice: An approach to justice that focuses on repairing the harm caused by crime through involving all stakeholders.
110. Recidivism Rate: The rate at which released prisoners are re-arrested, reconvicted, or returned to prison.
G. Ethics and Professional Conduct
111. Ethics: Moral principles that govern a person's behavior or the conducting of an activity.
112. Professional Conduct: The standards of behavior expected in a particular profession.
113. Human Rights: The basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled.
114. Due Process: The legal requirement that the state must respect all legal rights owed to a person.
115. Equal Protection: The principle that all people under the jurisdiction of a government are to be treated equally by the law.
116. Discretion: The authority to make decisions based on one's own judgment within legal bounds.
117. Corruption: The abuse of entrusted power for private gain.
118. Police Brutality: The use of excessive and/or unnecessary force by police officers.
119. Victim Welfare: The concern for the physical, emotional, and financial well-being of crime victims.
120. Code of Conduct: A set of rules outlining the social norms and responsibilities of an individual or organization.
