15/11/2023
BSOC 103 Sociology QA
(1). Discuss the limitation of classical social evolution.?
The theories of classical social evolution were highly influenced by Darwin's Theory of Evolution and early sociologists believed that cultures thought to progress from simple to complex states just as species. Sociologists did not draw much inspiration from Darwin’s central contribution to natural selection. Herbert Spencer applied the principle of the survival of the fittest into human societies and according to classical sociologists the evolution of society is unilinear.
The evolutionary doctrines have been accepted by some since the Enlightenment and served the colonial interest of European.These theories were described, but did not explain the social changes because these were based on faulty interpretations of the data.
Edward B Taylor, in his Theory of Unilinear Evolution opined that the three major stages of the development of a society are Savagery, Barbarism and civilization and Lewis Henry Morgan had also supported Taylor and subdivided Savagery and Barbarism into upper,middle and lower segments.The supporter of unilinear evolution set a sequence of stages and thought that all groups of the society will pass through at some point, although the pace of progress through these stages will vary greatly.
The French Revolution and American Revolution had changed the view of social progress.The recent ethnographic data and the theories of multilinear evolution proved that unilineal evolutionary theory provided a convenient justification for colonial rules over primitive peoples.
A society need not follow the same step as per the evolutionary sequence rather it developed by borrowing ideas and innovations from other societies.For example: the Bushmen of the Kalahari and the Aborigines of Australia are being introduced directly to industrial society skipping the stages described by classical evolutionary theorists.
On contrary the theory of cultural evolution opined that human culture is evolving in its own way by adaptation to diverse environments; different pathways of evolutionary development followed by different societies.The critics of classical social evolution argued that the reality in those theories cannot be found in ethnography and the supporter of the multilinear evolution called these as armchair anthropologists as they were critiqued for not conducting any field study rather dependent upon the traveller account which were partial and biassed.
According to classical theory of evolution primitive people have promiscuity(marriages having or involving many s*xual partners),but when the actual field work was carried out it was proved that concept was a pseudohistory.
Morgan Said that, the primitive societies are the remanence of past and Taylor considered the as social fossils.These dogmas were discarded by Neo-evolutionism in the 1930s as the new concept are based on empirical evidence from fields such as archeology,palaeontology and historiography. Many ideas of classical social evolutionism in the name of social progress were rejected by Julian Steward,Leslie White, Marshall Shalins and Elman Service.According to White(1943)evolution of human civilization is brought about not by any abstract factors but the concert and material wall of utilisation of energy as well as human technology.
Q2.What is conflict theory? Discuss the recent trends of conflict theory.
According to Karl Marx , society is divided into two classes: the proletariat (working class) and bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) and social conflicts arise due to competition for limited resources in an economy, leading to an eventual revolution and war. The bourgeoisie (ruling classes) kept the proletariat (working classes) in states of oppression with hegemony,which imposed dominance along with social rules that all had to obey.
Moreover, Max Weber extended this definition by including multi-dimensional class levels, such as those based on race, gender, and religion.
Also,Ralf Dahrendorf says that the conflict theory assumes that:
i)Every society is subjected at every moment to change , hence social change is ubiquitous
ii) Every society experiences social conflict at every moment,hence social conflict is ubiquitous.
iii)Every element in society contributes to change.
iv)Every society rests on constraints of some of its members by others.
The recent trends of Conflict Theory:
Recently,sociologists are trying to construct institutional structures on the basis of culture rather than that of rational structures. Michel Foucault opined that power is not concentrated in specific agents or strata but is diffused in all aspects of society by collective efforts applying the concept of capillary power. According to him, conflict, negotiation and contradictions are part of every relationship.
John Scott,has focused on corrective influence and persuasive influence to understand the nature of power which changes society. Corrective influence operates through punishments and rewards which are applied by force and manipulation whereas persuasive influence has two forms, signification and legitimation. Legitimization is able to maintain social integrity by preventing any kind of dissent as it hides the reality of the situation. Rendal Collins(1975),argued that some antagonism, domination and conflict are the foundation of social solidarity.He studies were based on Goffman’s model of interaction rituals which hide real feelings and antagonism.
A few recent examples of Conflict Theory to support
i)The Education System
Advanced students and students from rich families can afford quality education but average-performing students and struggling students do not receive similar opportunities. If these students are able to make it into college, they will be compelled to take student loans.
This conflict has led to a national reservation policy about the affordability of colleges and the ease of cancelling student loan debt.
ii) Movement
The MeToo movement, which began in 2006 and had a social media revival in 2017 as , identified how widespread the issue of workplace s*xual abuse and harassment had become. This social revolution reflects the inevitability that both Marx and Weber predicted.
iii)Black Lives Matter
Black Lives Matter is a social movement that protests violence against black people. It began in 2013 after George Zimmerman(painter) was acquitted in the shooting death of Trayvon Martin(17-year-old African-American). The movement’s supporters continue to demonstrate when black people are killed.Like the civil rights movement,Black Lives Matter is another example of a social revolution after years of unequal treatment.
3. Explain the elite theory of conflict.
Vilfredo Pareto and Gaetano Mosca propounded the elite theory of power. Pareto divided the society into two strata:- a) a lower stratum—the non-elite and (b) an upper stratum—the elite. The highest stratum is composed of outstanding leaders in a given field of competence. It is further subdivided into: (i) a governing elite; and (ii) a non-governing elite.
The ‘governing elite’ comprises individuals who directly play some considerable part in government, like ministers, legislators, president, secretaries, etc. The ‘non-governing elite’ are those people not connected with governmental activities.
Pareto argued that a closed aristocracy inevitably decays, producing cleavage and conflict within its own ranks, to emerge new elites leading to revolutionary change.
Gaetano Mosca, forwarded the familiar thesis that all human societies were always and everywhere ruled by a controlling social class and thus a society is always divided between rulers and ruled.
Thus, both Pareto and Mosca have a common concept of the elite as a minority which rules over the majority or the rest of the society by influencing the decision-makers.According to Pareto, social circulation is mobilised by endosmosis process by which elites try to be continue to rule the others by elimination or absorption, thus social mobility takes place for individuals without affecting social class structure. He followed Adam Smith to advocate the iberal doctrine and free exchange with an aversion for state control.
Lenski had defined four types of elites:- i)coercive;ii)inducing;iii) expert; and iv)commanding. Which had already been identified by Pareto as lions ,foxes, owls and bears respectively
4. Explain the thrust and activities of the National Organisation for Women.
The National Organization for Women is the largest organization of grassroots feminists in the United States. NOW has hundreds of chapters and hundreds of thousands of members and activists in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Since its founding in 1966, NOW's aim has been to work through grassroots interspersed to promote feminist ideals, lead social change, eliminate discrimination, and implement and protect equal rights for all women and girls in all aspects of social, political and economic life.
NOW's actions have established the organisation as a major force in major changes to bring more women into politics. Improving women's education, employment and business opportunities. Enacted tougher laws against violence, harassment and discrimination.
1. NOW supports the Equal Rights Amendment and works to provide women with explicit protections in the US Constitution.
2.NOW eliminate discrimination and harassment in the workplace, schools, justice system and all other sectors of society;
3. NOW advocates economic justice.
4. eliminate racism, s*xism, homophobia and other forms of discrimination
5.NOW guarantee the right to abortion, birth control and birth control for all women
6.NOW supports safe and legal abortion, affordable birth control and other forms of contraception, and reproductive health education.
7. NOW works to end violence against women.
8. NOW advocates for equal opportunity for women of colour in all areas of society, such as employment, education, and health care.
9.promote equality and equity in our society
10. NOW supports LGBTQIA+ rights as one of its main issues.
5.Explain Weber’s view on capitalism.
The economic system in which the means of production are privately owned; decisions over what is produced and what is bought and what prices should be are determined mainly by private individuals in the free market,instead of a planned economy; and profit is distributed to owners who invest in businesses.
MAX WEBER's view on Capitalism
Max Webber speaks of (rational capitalism) which is a western development(western = West Europe and North America)because the idea of rationality and the process of rationalisation are distinctly western.
Rationality:
Rationalisation is an attempt by humans to control the environment by organising and coordinating human activities in a certain regular and predictable manner. Rationality is a product of the scientific specialisation of western culture which gains control over the external world having the following features.
I)Science, a body of verifiable knowledge well developed in the west.
II)With the help of specialised institutions,written ;as and a constitution a
rational state regulates its political activities.
III)Rational capitalism requires a privately owned and controlled productive
economy.
Pre-conditions for rational capitalism.
I)private ownership of material and resources.
II)The market must be free and there shouldn't be any restrictions on the flow of trade.
III)Machines and technologies must be used in the production and distribution of goods.
IV)There must be rational legislation to all members of society for economic contracts.
V)Labourers must enjoy legal freedom in work space.
VI)Everyone must get opportunities to work in an enterprise to run comercial economy
6. What according to Marx are the causes of division of labour?
According to Marx, the division of labour of primitive society was based on age, s*x , and physical strength.Therefore , still not a true division of labor. It becomes true from the moment when a division of material and mental labour appears.
Marx believed that men experienced no sense of alienation up to the time that the sense of private property arose .Men began to appropriate the products of other men’s labour for their own intent and purpose, thus the practice of enslaving ,i.e the division of labour started in a society. Marx believed that the capitalist economic systems created the divisions of labour in each and every economy of a state.
7. What is dramaturgy?
Dramaturgy is a sociological perspective on identity that uses theatrical symbols to examine issues of identity formation and reform. Dramaturgy thus envisions the place, moment and audience to which identity is presented. This places the formation of identities both in social contexts (like classrooms, chat rooms, families.) and in specific points in time. This means that identities can change in different situations and moments. An important aspect of dramaturgy, however, is the concept of the spectator and the individual's relationship to that spectator at that particular time and place. Individual actors must control their self-expression in order to elicit the desired reaction from the audience to their performance.
8. Differentiate between mechanical and organic solidarity.
1.
*Mechanical Solidarity occurs in primitive societies.
* Organic Solidarity occurs in modern society.
2.
* Homogeneity is the main basis of Mechanical Solidarity.
* Organic Solidarity is based on member heterogeneity.
3.
* Mechanical Solidarity occurs in societies with small populations.
* Organic Solidarity occurs in a large population.
4.
*Members are self-sufficient performing similar activities in case of Mechanical Solidarity.
*Members are not self-sufficient and depend on others for survival in case of Organic Solidarity.
5.
*In Mechanical Solidarity a society is less tolerant of differences and violations of norms.
*In Organic Solidarity society is tolerant and interdependent.
6.
*The individual in Mechanical Solidarity society is totally submerged in collectivity.
In Organic Solidarity the individual is given some autonomy.
9. Distinguish between religion and science.
1.
*Science is objective and fixed to facts and logic.
*Religion is subjective as it is fixed in beliefs without any evidence.
2
*Scientists believe that science can help close the gap between rich and poor.
*Religious people disputed the views of their forerunner and rebelled against them.
3.
*Science studies the world we know.
*Religion is linked to the supernatural world.
4.
*In science, people welcome new ideas and test them.
*Religion believes in certain ideas and does not even agree to try new things.
5.
*Science is tested and questioned. It may not be correct. This helped development of science over time.
*But religion is believed blindly and those who try to oppose it will be accused.
10. What is anomie?
The term was coined by the French sociologist Émile Durkheim in his “Research on Suicide”. He believes that a type of su***de (anomic) is the result of breaking the social norms necessary to regulate behavior. When a social system is in a state of meaninglessness, shared values and shared meanings are no longer understood or accepted, and new values and meanings do not develop. According to Durkheim, such a society produces, in many of its members, psychological states characterised by feelings of futility, purposelessness, emotional emptiness, and despair. Effort is considered wasted, as there is no accepted definition of what is desirable.
