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de Broglie Equation!!

Physicist Louis de Broglie was one of the pioneers of quantum physics best known for the discovery of the wave nature of electrons and the suggestion that all matter has wave properties. This concept is known as the de Broglie hypothesis or the de Broglie relation.

It forms the basis of the quantum mechanics and explains phenomena such as the diffraction and interference of electrons. It also implies that particles can have both wave and particle characteristics, a phenomenon called wave-particle duality. De Broglie’s idea was inspired by the work of Albert Einstein, who showed that light can behave as both waves and particles. De Broglie extended this idea to matter and proposed that the wavelength of a particle is inversely proportional to its momentum. He derived a mathematical formula to express this relation, which is now known as the de Broglie equation.

Energy and its types

Motion energy – or mechanical energy – is the energy stored in objects; as objects move faster, more energy is stored. Examples of motion energy include wind, a flowing river, a moving car, or a person running.

Gravitational energy is a form of potential energy. It is an energy associated with gravity or gravitational force – in other words, the energy held by an object when it is in a high position compared to a lower position.

Sound energy is the movement of energy through substances. It moves in waves and is produced when a force makes an object or substance vibrate. There is usually much less energy in sound than in other forms of energy.

Nuclear energy is stored in the nucleus of atoms. This energy is released when the nuclei are combined (fusion) or split apart (fission). Nuclear power plants split the nuclei of uranium atoms to produce electricity.

Electrical energy is the movement of electrons (the tiny particles that makeup atoms, along with protons and neutrons). Electrons that move through a wire are called electricity. Lightning is another example of electrical energy.

light energy or electromagnetic energy, radiant energy is a type of kinetic energy that travels in waves. Examples include the energy from the sun, x-rays, and radio waves.

**Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)**

BJT stands for Bipolar Junction Transistor.

Bipolar Junction Transistor was invented in the year 1947 by John Bardeen, William Shockley, and Walter Houser Brattain.

There are two types of BJT:
1. PNP Bipolar Junction Transistor.
2. NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor.

Transistors are used for amplifying, controlling, and switching electrical signals and it also use for voltage and current regulations.

**Total Internal Reflection**

Total internal reflection is an optical phenomenon in which a light ray is completely reflected under certain conditions.

Total internal reflection is discovered in the year 1611 by Johannes Kepler.

Condition of total internal reflections.

1. The light rays must travel from a denser medium (medium of high refractive index) to the rare medium (medium of low refractive index).

2. The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.

This is the illustration diagram of Total internal reflection.

**Measurement of the Speed of Light**

Hippolyte Fizeau measures the speed of light in the year 1849, in his Fizeau Experiment.

Fizeau Experiment Setup:

Toothed Wheel: Moterize the rotating toothed wheel. (Width of the teeth of the wheel is equal to the width of the gap between the teeth of the wheel).

Semi-reflective mirror: A partially glazed glass that allows some light to pass through it and some light to get reflected. (It is set in the tilted position)

Reflecting Mirror: It reflects back the light beam when the light beam incident on it.

Light Source: A laser work as a light source in this setup.
Observer: Observer is used to observing the coming light beam.

Working Principle:

After switching on a light source, the light passed through the semi-reflective mirror, and after that light passes through the outer rim of the toothed wheel, after light hit the reflecting mirror and reflected back and again passes through the outer rim of the toothed wheel and then the incidence on the semi-reflective mirror and after that light beam reflected and observe through the observer.

The first terrestrial measurement of the speed of light is measured in the year 1849, by Hippolyte Fizeau in his Fizeau Experiment.

** Linear Polarization of Light**

In linear polarization of light, light is transformed from unpolarized light into linear polarized light.

The term “Linear Polarization” was coined by Augustin-Jean Fresnel in the year 1822.

Unpolarized Light: In unpolarized light, light vibrates in all possible directions.

Polarizer: A polarizer is an optical fiber that passes only specific polarization of light, and blocks the rest of other polarization of light.

Polarized Light: In polarized light, light vibrates in a single plane.

Analyzer: An analyzer is a device to check the light is polarized or not.

*Resistor in Series**

When two or more resistors connected end to end in a single branch such that the same current flows through the resistors, then resistors are said to be connected in series.

When resistors are connected in series the current flowing through each resistor is the same.

Voltage across each resistor is given by,

V = I x R

V = Voltage across resistor.
I = Current across resistor.
R = Resistance of resistor.

From the illustration diagram given below,

V = V1 + V2 .
V = i( R1 + R2)

From the equivalent circuit,

V = iReq
iReq = i(R1 + R2)
Req = R1 + R2.

Similarly equivalent resistance for ‘n’ number of resistors connected in series.

Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + ............... + Rn.

**Capacitance of a spherical conductor**

This is the illustration diagram for the calculation of the capacitance of a spherical conductor.