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English Grammar

🔸Grammar refers to the way words are used, classified, and structured together
to form coherent written or spoken communication.
This guide takes a traditional approach to teaching English grammar, breaking
the topic into three fundamental elements: Parts of Speech, Inflection, and
Syntax. Each of these is a discrete, individual part, but they are all intrinsically
linked together in meaning.

Parts of Speech

🔸In the first part of the guide, we will look at the basic components of English—
words. The parts of speech are the categories to which different words are
assigned, based on their meaning, structure, and function in a sentence.
We’ll look in great detail at the seven main parts of speech—nouns, pronouns,
verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions—as well as other
categories of words that don’t easily fit in with the rest, such as particles,
determiners, and gerunds.
By understanding the parts of speech, we can better understand how (and why)
we structure words together to form sentences.

Inflection

🔸Although the parts of speech provide the building blocks for English, another
very important element is inflection, the process by which words are changed in
form to create new, specific meanings.
There are two main categories of inflection: conjugation and declension.
Conjugation refers to the inflection of verbs, while declension refers to the
inflection of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs. Whenever we change a
verb from the present tense to the past tense, for example, we are using
conjugation. Likewise, when we make a noun plural to show that there is more
than one of it, we are using declension.

Syntax

🔸The third and final part of the guide will focus on syntax, the rules and patterns
that govern how we structure sentences. The grammatical structures that
constitute syntax can be thought of as a hierarchy, with sentences at the top as the largest cohesive unit in the language and words (the parts of speech) at the
bottom.
We’ll begin the third part by looking at the basic structural units present in all
sentences—subjects and predicates—and progressively move on to larger
classes of structures, discussing modifiers, phrases, and clauses. Finally, we
will end by looking at the different structures and categories of sentences
themselves.

Using the three parts together

🔸The best way to approach this guide is to think of it as a cross-reference of itself;
when you see a term or concept in one section that you’re unfamiliar with, check
the other sections to find a more thorough explanation. Neither parts of speech
nor inflection nor syntax exist as truly separate units; it’s equally important to
examine and learn about the different kinds of words, how they can change to
create new meaning, and the guidelines by which they are structured into
sentences.
When we learn to use all three parts together, we gain a much fuller
understanding of how to make our speech and writing not only proper, but
natural and effective.

🚩Parts of Speech

Definition

The parts of speech are the primary categories of words according to their
function in a sentence.
English has seven main parts of speech. We’ll look at a brief overview of each
below; continue on to their individual chapters to learn more about them.

Nouns

🔸Nouns are words that identify or name people, places, or things. Nouns can
function as the subject of a clause or sentence, an object of a verb, or an object
of a preposition. Words like cat, book, table, girl, and plane are all nouns.

Pronouns

🔸Pronouns are words that represent nouns (people, places, or things).
Grammatically, pronouns are used in the same ways as nouns; they can function
as subjects or objects. Common pronouns include I, you, she, him, it, everyone,
and somebody.

Verbs

🔸Verbs are words that describe the actions—or states of being—of people,
animals, places, or things. Verbs function as the root of what’s called the
predicate, which is required (along with a subject) to form a complete sentence;
therefore, every sentence must include at least one verb.

Verbs include action words like run, walk, write, or sing, as well as words
describing states of being, such as be, seem, feel, or sound.

Adjectives

🔸Adjectives are words that modify (add description to) nouns and (occasionally)
pronouns. They can be a part of either the subject or the predicate. Common
adjectives are red, blue, fast, slow, big, tall, and wide.

Adverbs

Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or even entire
clauses. Depending on what they modify (and how), adverbs can appear
anywhere in the sentence. Adverbs are commonly formed from adjectives by
adding “-ly” to the end, as in slowly, quickly, widely, beautifully, or commonly.

Prepositions

🔸Prepositions are words that express a relationship between a noun or pronoun
(known as the object of the preposition) and another part of the sentence.
Together, these form prepositional phrases, which can function as adjectives or
as adverbs in a sentence. Some examples of prepositional phrases are: on the
table, in the shed, and across the field. (The prepositions are in bold.)

Conjunctions

🔸Conjunctions are words that connect other words, phrases, or clauses,
expressing a specific kind of relationship between the two (or more) elements.
The most common conjunctions are the coordinating conjunctions: and, but,
or, nor, for, so, and yet.
Other Parts

You will face with other parts of Parts of Speech 🔜🔜

Demonstratives

🔸 The Demonstrative adjectives are this,that, these and those
Ex: Can you take this letter to the bank, please?

🔸 We use this and that with singular nouns and uncountable nouns. We use these and those with plural nouns.

We can also use them without nouns when the meaning is clear:
That's Nadim's bike and this is mine.( That=That bike; this = this bike)

Here are some more examples of this, that, these and those without a noun. We use this structure when the meaning is clear without using a noun:
Ex: These are my Favorite chocolate🍬!(These = These chocolate )
Ex: This painting is OK, but I prefer those over there.

Or when we want to point to something that is about to happen,or something that happened in the past:
This is very interesting. (This = the thing I am going to say now)

🔸We use this and these for things that are near to us:
I think this money belongs to Harry.
These clothes are really dirty!
We use that and those for things that are not near to us:
Ex: God and stand by that tree over there.
Those boys are waving at you!

🔸 We use this and these to talk about things that are near in time( happening now or just going to happen):
I like listening to this programme.
(= the programme on the radio now)
I love these long summer evenings.
(=it is summer now)

🔸We use this and these to talk about our activities in the present or future:
Ex: Have you tried these cakes?
Ex: I'm really enjoying this party.

We use that and those to talk about activities in the past. Here, we are talking about a trip last week:
Ex: What is the name of those yellow fish that we saw at the zoo?
Ex: That elephant obviously liked apples!

🔸On a journey we use this for places where are going to arrive in,and that for places week have passed:
Ex: What is the name of that castle that we saw a few minutes ago?
Ex: This next village is called Bakewell.

Parentheses

The difference between a 'bracket' and a 'parentheses' can be a bit confusing. Generally, 'parentheses' refers to round brackets ( ) and 'brackets' to square brackets [ ]. However, we are more and more used to hearing these referred to simply as 'round brackets' or 'square brackets'.

Usually we use square brackets - [ ] - for special purposes such as in technical manuals. Round brackets - ( ) - are used in a similar way to commas when we want to add further explanation, an afterthought, or comment that is to do with our main line of thought but distinct from it. Many grammarians feel that the parentheses can, in fact, be replaced by commas in nearly all cases.

EXAMPLES

The government's education report (April 2005) shows that the level of literacy is rising in nearly all areas.
I visited Kathmandu (which was full of tourists) on my way to the Himalayas for a trekking expedition.
You can eat almost anything while travelling in Asia if you are careful to observe simple rules (avoiding unboiled or unbottled water is one of the main rules to be aware of.)

Hyphen

A hyphen joins two or more words together while a dash separates words into parenthetical statements. The two are sometimes confused because they look so similar, but their usage is different. Hyphens are not separated by spaces, while a dash has a space on either side.

HYPHENS
Generally, hyphens are used to join two words or parts of words together while avoiding confusion or ambiguity. Consult your dictionary if you are not sure if a hyphen is required in a compound word, but remember that current usage may have shifted since your dictionary was published.

EXAMPLES

run-down
up-to-date
There are some cases where hyphens preserve written clarity such as where there are letter collisions, where a prefix is added, or in family relations. Many words that have been hyphenated in the past have since dropped the hyphen and become a single word (email, nowadays).

EXAMPLES

co-operate
bell-like
anti-nuclear
post-colonial
great-grandmother
son-in-law
In some cases though, a hyphen does change the meaning of a sentence.

EXAMPLE

I am thinking of re-covering my sofa (= to put a new cover on it)
I would like to recover my sofa. (= from someone who has borrowed or stolen it)
HYPHENS IN NUMBERS

Use a hyphen with compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine.

EXAMPLES

fifty-one
eighty-nine
thirty-two
sixty-five
In written fractions place a hyphen between the numerator and denominator except if there is already a hyphen in either the numerator or the denominator.

EXAMPLES

two-fifths
one-third
three-tenths
nine-hundredths
sixty-nine eighty-ninths
Use a hyphen when a number forms part of an adjectival compound

EXAMPLES

France has a 35-hour working week.
He won the 100-metre sprint.
Charles Dickens was a great nineteenth-century novelist.
DASHES
Dashes can be used to add parenthetical statements or comments in much the same way as you would use brackets. In formal writing you should use the bracket rather than the dash as a dash is considered less formal. Dashes can be used to create emphasis in a sentence.

EXAMPLES

You may think she is a liar - she isn't.
She might come to the party - you never know.

The apostrophe

The apostrophe probably causes more grief than all of the other punctuation marks put together! The problem nearly always seems to stem from not understanding that the apostrophe has two very different (and very important) uses in English: possession and contractions.

THE APOSTROPHE IN CONTRACTIONS
The most common use of apostrophes in English is for contractions, where a noun or pronoun and a verb combine. Remember that the apostrophe is often replacing a letter that has been dropped. It is placed where the missing letter would be in that case.

Type Without contractions Contractions
Using "not" is not, has not, had not, did not, would not, can not isn't, hasn't, hadn't, didn't, wouldn't, can't
Using "is" she is, there is, he is, it is, Mary is, Jim is, Germany is, who is she's, there's, he's, it's, Mary's, Jim's, Germany's, who's
Using "am" I am I'm
Using "will" I will, you will, she will, we will, they will I'll, you'll, she'll, we'll, they'll
Using "would" I would, you would, he would, we would, they would I'd, you'd, he'd, we'd, they'd
Using "have" I have, you have, we have, they have I've, you've, we've, they've
Using "are" you are, they are, we are you're, they're, we're
People, even native English speakers, often mistake its and it's, you're and your, who's and whose, and they're, their and there. See below for the difference.

EXAMPLES

It's a nice day outside. (contraction)
The cat is dirty. Its fur is matted. (possession)
You're not supposed to be here. (contraction)
This is your book. (possession)
Who's at the door? (contraction)
Whose shoes are these? (possession)
They're not here yet. (contraction)
Their car is red. (possession)
His car is over there. (location)
THE POSSESSIVE APOSTROPHE
In most cases you simply need to add 's to a noun to show possession

EXAMPLES

a ship's captain
a doctor's patient
a car's engine
Ibrahim's coat
Mirianna's book
Plural nouns that do not end in s also follow this rule:

EXAMPLES

the children's room
the men's work
the women's club
Ordinary (or common) nouns that end in s, both singular and plural, show possession simply by adding an apostrophe after the s.

EXAMPLES

the bus' wheel
the babies' crying
the ladies' tennis club
the teachers' journal
Proper nouns (names of people, cities, countries) that end in s can form the possessive either by adding the apostrophe + s or simply adding the apostrophe. Today both forms are considered correct (Jones's or Jones'), and many large organisations now drop the apostrophe completely (e.g. Barclays Bank, Missing Persons Bureau) when publishing their name.

EXAMPLES

The Hughes' home (or the Hughes's home)
Mr Jones's shop (or Mr Jones' shop)
Charles' book (or Charles's book)

The Quotation

Use quotation marks to cite something someone said exactly. When rephrasing what someone told you, no quotation marks are needed.

EXAMPLES

"I'm going to the store now," she said.
Harry told me, "Don't forget your soccer jersey."
Harry told me not to forget my soccer jersey.
If quoting others within a quote, both single and double quotation marks are used to set the two separate quotations off from each other.

EXAMPLE

'I haven't spoken to Peter for months,' Dianne said.'The last time I spoke to him he said, "I'm going to Bahrain and won't be back for about three years", I've heard nothing since then'.
You may see single or double quotation marks used to mark out idiomatic or unfamiliar expressions

EXAMPLES

I've always thought that he was very annoying, a bit of a 'pain in the neck.'
I'm not sure what you mean by "custodial care", but I'm sure you will explain it to me.
Quotation marks both single and double are also used for specific purposes in bibliographic references or when citing sources in academic writing. There are a number of ways of organising bibliographies which set out standard formats. Most organisations and academic institutions will prefer one of these or have their own format published in a 'style guide'.

EXAMPLE

"The Migration Flight of the Lesser Tweazle", by Jeremey Adams, The Bird Spotter Magazine, July 2009.

The Semicolon

The semicolon is somewhere between a full stop and a comma. Semicolons can be used in English to join phrases and sentences that are thematically linked without having to use a conjunction (example 1 below). Semicolons can also be used instead of commas to separate the items in a list when the items themselves already contain commas (example 2 below).

EXAMPLES

I like your brother; he's a good friend.
Many great leaders, Churchill, leader of Britain during the Second World War; Alexander, the great Emperor and general; and Napolean, the brilliant French general, had strong characters, which were useful when their countries were at war but which did not serve them well in times of peace.